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1 | # Is Windows a joke [security analysis]?
2 |
3 | 
4 |
5 | Is Windows a joke or are you? 🧢
6 |
7 | ## Report inaccuracies
8 |
9 | If you find something wrong or inaccurate, please [share your point of view](https://github.com/d3fenderz/windows_security/discussions/8).
10 |
11 | ## Windows is "inherently insecure"?
12 |
13 | I'm neither a Windows advocate nor a fan boy. [This issue](https://github.com/d3fenderz/windows_security/issues/7) is real. Still, there are ways to counterbalance/mitigate that, and other systems are not immune to similar attacks.
14 |
15 | If you're afraid of phishing campaigns and users clicking on tricked file types, then take the appropriate measures.
16 |
17 | ## General
18 |
19 | I'm probably not the only one to make jokes about Windows and its vulnerabilities. Indeed, Microsoft sells products to the vast majority of individuals, but organizations as well.
20 |
21 | A large range of businesses rely on Active Directories and other Microsoft technologies for their daily activities.
22 |
23 | Millions of users use these products every day. That's why it's a primary target for cybercriminals.
24 |
25 | While Windows' bad reputation was probably justified at a time, news versions seem particularly secure. It's just that Microsoft does not enable everything by default to appeal to the largest market share.
26 |
27 | ### Constructive Critics
28 |
29 | In 2022, I've seen multiple cases where Microsoft teams did not answer appropriately to major security alerts, ignoring security researchers and almost marking critical vulnerabilities as _won't fix_ or not answering at all.
30 |
31 | Specialists regularly complain about that. It's problematic as some flaws remain unpatched for weeks or months without remediation, sometimes without any mitigation.
32 |
33 | ### Windows vs. Linux vs. macOS
34 |
35 | If you compare with other OSes, Windows is secure. I'm definitely a Linux fan boy, but I can't recommend it to everyone, especially for security purposes.
36 |
37 | It shifts the responsibility to the end-users, exposing beginners and non-technical users to various risks, especially if you install alternative distros. A huge part of the global security is handled by browsers, not the system itself.
38 | You need to be a power user to leverage the benefits of Linux. While the latest versions are usually patched and way more usable, it's easy to completely mess up your configuration.
39 |
40 | At least, Windows simplifies the process and helps all users secure their machine (e.g., security patches, automatic updates, BIOS flashing, firmware updates).
41 |
42 | ### What you will find here
43 |
44 | I'm writing this guide to help you understand Windows and its security mechanisms. You'll also get helpful links to dig further. We'll see how to harden your configuration and activate interesting options.
45 |
46 | We'll see practical examples that help defending your system against common exploits.
47 |
48 | ### But security tools and policies can be disabled!
49 |
50 | Yes, and it's undeniably a good point. Many attacks attempt to modify registry entries to disable security tools and mechanims, allowing malware to spread and infect the entire system.
51 |
52 | Attackers can also leverage [LOTL attacks](https://encyclopedia.kaspersky.com/glossary/lotl-living-off-the-land/), using legitimate software to bypass detection.
53 |
54 | ### Static analysis is not enough
55 |
56 | Attacks can be identified by static analysis and signature-based detection. It's necessary but no longer sufficient.
57 |
58 | During forensic investigations and malware analysis, you may upload binaries or `.dll` to VirusTotal, but such static analysis on suspicious files won't help you with malicious instructions in memory.
59 | In many cases, defenders need dynamic analysis too, like behavioral detection, as built-in commands and mechanisms can be used to download poison from external IPs to install malware.
60 |
61 | Windows cannot prevent users from installing third-party applications by default, which is often the path used by cybercriminals compromise their victims.
62 |
63 | ### So, Windows is perfect?
64 |
65 | Nope. Don't get me wrong with this guide. My point is that it's probably less shitty than you and I think. Besides, your family and friends won't switch to Tails (even macOS) tomorrow.
66 |
67 | ## Basics of security on Windows
68 |
69 | ### 7 recommentations for the individuals
70 |
71 | My shortlist, no bullshit:
72 |
73 | * Enable Windows built-in security (Defender, Firewall, etc).
74 | * Keep the system and the applications up-to-date: download and install **all** patches available.
75 | * Keep the BIOS and the firmware up-to-date.
76 | * Encrypt the hard drive with [BitLocker](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/security/information-protection/bitlocker/bitlocker-overview).
77 | * Connecting with Microsoft accounts is only useful to enable [Windows Hello](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-hardware/design/device-experiences/windows-hello). Otherwise, use local accounts only.
78 | * Apply the least privilege principle: not all users need admin privileges (even you don't need to be admin all the time, so maybe create a standard account for daily activities)
79 | * As admin, define local security policies (e.g., strong password policy), apply mitigations, and sync files to make regular backups (e.g., have a clear recovery strategy).
80 |
81 | It does not mean you get a digital fortress after that, but it's not trivial to hack and usually requires social engineering and more sophisticated scenarios to make people install crap.
82 |
83 | ### About Windows 11
84 |
85 | Windows has better default policies and settings.
86 |
87 | If your machine meets the following requirements (you can use [health check](https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/how-to-check-if-your-device-meets-windows-11-system-requirements-after-changing-device-hardware-f3bc0aeb-6884-41a1-ab57-88258df6812b) to verify it):
88 |
89 | * TPM 2.0
90 | * Security boot Enabled
91 | * DEP (Data Execution Prevention)
92 | * UEFI MAT
93 |
94 | It's recommended to switch to Windows 11. The latest version of the OS (at the time of writing) enables interesting features by default, such as Memory integrity, which protects the core from various hijacks and memory corruptions.
95 |
96 | The requirements also provide [zero trust protection](https://www.ibm.com/topics/zero-trust) out of the box. More pragmatically, such configuration eliminates _de facto_ entire classes of threats.
97 |
98 | A big caveat is that many people will attempt to bypass system requirements, trying to upgrade old machines to Windows 11, which is a very bad move, as it's not meant for that by definition, and you may lose both the security benefits and the usability (e.g., hardware performances). Many advanced security features, like [VBS](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/security/threat-protection/device-guard/enable-virtualization-based-protection-of-code-integrity) are available on Windows 10 too.
99 |
100 | **Windows 10 will be maintained until Oct. 14, 2025**
101 |
102 | ### 7 Recommendations for the admins (businesses, organizations)
103 |
104 | It's hard to provide a generic list, as there are many configurations and products (e.g., Windows Server), but let's keep it simple:
105 |
106 | * Keep the system up-to-date, including the BIOS and the firmware, but also applications
107 | * Encrypt hard drives with [BitLocker](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/security/information-protection/bitlocker/bitlocker-overview).
108 | * Consider suites like Windows 365 that provides recommendations for admins and advanced endpoint protection (there are many credible alternatives, but cloud-based security can be rewarding)
109 | * Apply the least privilege principle [see documentation](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/active-directory/develop/secure-least-privileged-access)
110 | * Don't trust the default settings: define security policies (e.g., strong password policy), apply mitigations (e.g, Group Policies, additional kernel protection), and have a proper recovery strategy (tested)
111 | * Log sensitive [Powershell](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/powershell/) commands (e.g., Invoke-WebRequest, Get-FileHash)
112 | * Monitor endpoints, network traffic, and unusual activities (e.g., SIEMs, behavioral analysis, packets sniffers, event logs)
113 |
114 | ### Most bypasses involve initial access and malicious TCP connections
115 |
116 | Most demos that bypass Windows security need initial access before, but that's not the most complicated part. Phishing attacks are more and more sophisticated these days, so it's not uncommon employees get tricked into deploying RATs and other "connect-back" tools, especially when the company has no security culture.
117 |
118 | However, what bypasses Windows Defender is usually obfuscated powershell commands that start reverse shells and other malicious TCP connections. While it definitely works, any system would be fooled unless you monitor/filter packets and outgoing connections correctly, even on a fully-patched Windows (not a valid demonstration to me).
119 |
120 | Besides, cybercriminals often use legitimate platforms as "C&C" servers to bypass detection tools that focus on blacklisted domains and IP ranges.
121 |
122 | ### The System32
123 |
124 | You can read [this blog post](https://jmau111.github.io/2022/11/25/windows-system32-forensics/) for a quick introduction to essential concepts.
125 |
126 | `C:\Windows\System32` is the heart of the system. It contains all system configurations, settings, and binaries. If you or something else (e.g., a virus) damages this folder, you can say good bye to your environmment (regular backups are strongly recommended).
127 |
128 | That's why Windows does not let you destroy this folder and locks most files within, even for admins.
129 |
130 | Cybercriminals use it all the time, for example, to hijack `.dll` and or replace system binaries with evil executables.
131 |
132 | ### Active directory vs. LDAP
133 |
134 | Also known as AD, it's a Windows service that stores data objects, which can be users, devices, applications, or groups. Enterprises often use it to allow users to authenticate and manage various resources. It requires Windows Professional or Windows Enterprise, at least, but you usually test it with Windows Server editions.
135 |
136 | Attackers have multiple angles to attack, but they will likely target the domain controller, which is like a central computer (a server) that manages all other computers, devices and users (credentials) in the AD.
137 |
138 | It's essential to monitor events and attribute the right permissions (admins must fine tune access rights and controls) to keep the AD secure. For example, pen-testers like to perform password spraying and other malicious attacks on such service.
139 |
140 | Admins can enable features like Security auditing to monitor success and failures. They can also track operations like synchronizations, backups, or migrations.
141 |
142 | LDAP means "Lightweight Directory Access Protocol" and is designed for enterprises. It provides a pretty convenient set of commands to query information. Active Directory can implement this protocol to allow interactions with LDAP-based applications.
143 |
144 | There are various enumerations and attacks that pen-testers can perform to extract sensitive information from crafted LDAP requests, so admin must ensure it's correctly configured.
145 |
146 | ## The Windows Registry
147 |
148 | ### In short
149 |
150 | > Registry files are located C:\Windows\System32\Config and contain keys and associated values that control critical functions. For example, UAC (User Account Control) can be deactivated by modifying the value of a specific key in the Windows Registry.
151 |
152 | [Source: A quick Journey In The System32](https://jmau111.github.io/2022/11/25/windows-system32-forensics/#basic-forensics)
153 |
154 | **It's essential to backup registry entries before any modification**, as the system continually references them during its operations.
155 |
156 | The Registry is one of the most critical areas to protect and monitor, as `reg query` commands allows reading and modifying pretty much everything on the system, including security settings. Using a group policy (gpedit.msc > user configuration > system: "prevent access to the registry editing tools") or the Registry itself, you can restrict its access.
157 |
158 | It's not the ultimate protection, but it's still an additional layer.
159 |
160 | You can use software like [regshot](https://sourceforge.net/projects/regshot/) to take snapshots of the Registry. It's useful to restore the system when it gets unstable, and also valuable for forensic analysis.
161 |
162 | ### What are the hives?
163 |
164 | > A registry hive is a group of keys, subkeys, and values in the registry that has a set of supporting files that contain backups of its data
165 |
166 | Most hives[^1] begin with "HKEY" and are on the top of the tree (~ hierarchy). You may find the term "root keys" instead, but it's the same thing. If you open the Registry editor, you'll see the following virtual folders:
167 |
168 | * `HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT`: data for applications
169 | * `HKEY_CURRENT_USER`: personal settings of the current logged-in user
170 | * `HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE`: system settings
171 | * `HKEY_USERS`: settings of all users
172 | * `HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG`: hardware, drivers
173 |
174 | The system does not let you modify their names or locations, as it considers there's no valid reason for that. Inside, you'll find various keys that control different functionalities, system settings, or users' preferences.
175 |
176 | The values associated to the keys can be `1` or `O` to enable/disable features but also strings like paths for system binaries.
177 |
178 | _N.B.: The editor represents the Registry as a **hierarchical tree**, but it does not reflect their actual locations on the disk._
179 |
180 | ### Typical Windows commands
181 |
182 | Classic attacks often involve `reg query` commands to enumerate specific software (e.g., remote access tools), extract sensitive information, and even modify entries (e.g., abusing ImagePath to point to malicious executables).
183 |
184 | [Source: reg query - Microsoft](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-server/administration/windows-commands/reg-query)
185 |
186 | Of course, you can also open the Registry editor by typing "regedit" in the search bar, but it usually requires admin privileges.
187 |
188 | More sophisticated attacks can store instructions for malware in registry entries, which allows evading signature-based detection. This can happen after a phishing attack or on a malicious website that leverages JavaScript to trick users into modifying their system.
189 |
190 | The ultimate goal is usually to gain persistence, as some hives and keys control the startup (e.g., HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE).
191 |
192 | ### How to protect the Registry
193 |
194 | There are several ways:
195 |
196 | * backup entries regularly (e.g., manual backups, scheduled tasks, regshot)
197 | * monitor registry editing (again, regshot can help you compare 2 snapshots, for example, with the "compare" button)
198 | * whitelist allowed software
199 | * restrict access to the editor (e.g., using a registry entry or a group policy)
200 | * define local group policies to lock keys
201 | * program `reg query` commands to reset keys on startup
202 | * stop using software like ccleaner that can mess up everything (it allows the user to delete keys)
203 |
204 | ### Practical example: reverse shell
205 |
206 | ```
207 | reg add "HKLM\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\services\regsvc" /t REG_EXPAND_SZ /v ImagePath /d "C:Temp\reverse_shell.exe" /f
208 | ```
209 |
210 | The above command is a typical attack that attempts to abuse the ImagePath of a system binary to replace it with a malicious one and execute the reverse shell with higher privileges.
211 |
212 | The attacker only has to restart the service to make changes effective.
213 |
214 | It relies on weak permissions for Registry hives that allows users to modify keys for system components, which can ultimately lead to privilege escalation.
215 |
216 | ## Windows Mitigations
217 |
218 | ### Intro
219 |
220 | Windows 10 allows configuring additional security measures to mitigate common threats.
221 |
222 | For example, Pass-the-Hash or Pass-the-Ticket attacks can be mitigated by virtualization-based security (VBS) and Credential Guard in Enterprise and Server editions. Such attacks are massively used by attackers.
223 |
224 | Many CTFs emulate that, but it's not possible, or, at least, extremely hard with such mitigations.
225 |
226 | [Source: Windows documentation - mitigate threats](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/security/threat-protection/overview-of-threat-mitigations-in-windows-10)
227 |
228 | ### Mitigation vs. remediation
229 |
230 | Both terms are part of risk assessment, but it's not the same concept. Remediation closes security holes and is the best option, but it's not always possible. While mitigations won't address the vulnerabilities, it can buy some time, reducing the likelihood of security flaws being exploited.
231 |
232 | ### Misknown security features
233 |
234 | [Specific functionalities](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/security/threat-protection/overview-of-threat-mitigations-in-windows-10#table-3-windows-10-mitigations-to-protect-against-memory-exploits--no-configuration-needed) help mitigate common threats such as memory heap or pool memory exploits.
235 |
236 | You can also protect processes from tampering attacks. These mitigations remain quite misknown by most users, admins and developers. If correctly set, it can reduce the attack surface dramatically and contain infections.
237 |
238 | Other features include defenses against bootkits, rootkits, fake drivers, viruses and various malware. While this will certainly not stop everything, it can slow down adversaries, at the very least.
239 |
240 | ### Exploit guard and other mitigation controls
241 |
242 | [Exploit Guard](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/mem/configmgr/protect/deploy-use/create-deploy-exploit-guard-policy) is the successor to EMET (The Enhanced Mitigation Experience Toolkit) and provides core isolation and advanced kernel protection. Defenders can leverage it to enforce Windows 10 security significantly.
243 |
244 | Again, it's not available on all editions, but in a corporate context, it's highly recommended. Some overflows, race conditions, and logic bugs can be mitigated when your turn on core isolation.
245 |
246 | As you may already know, the kernel is the head of the system. Everything that runs at that level will have full permissions. That's why it's so important to isolate processes and prevent nasty leaks.
247 |
248 | ## Security policies
249 |
250 | ### Introduction
251 |
252 | Windows allows you to set [security policies](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/security/threat-protection/security-policy-settings/how-to-configure-security-policy-settings) on the local device, on a domain-joined device, and on a domain controller.
253 |
254 | Many pre-defined policies are set to "no configuration" by default, but you can change the value and significantly harden your configuration. Just type `secpol.msc` on the start screen. You can also use `gpedit.msc` to modify local group policies. For example, you can use it to force strong passwords for all users.
255 |
256 | On Windows 11, you can also type "Local Security Policy" in the search bar. Indeed, there are multiple ways to open the editor.
257 |
258 | ### Pros and cons
259 |
260 | In my experience, Local Security Policy provides an interesting granularity, but it can be overwhelming at the beginning, as there are tons of rules, and labels are not always easy to understand.
261 |
262 | Besides, as it's a policy, it can be modified, for example, using Powershell commands to retrieve policies as objects. However, it's not a valid reason to skip such configuration, as you can restrict what users can do significantly.
263 |
264 | The good news is you can export/import policies as Windows allows you to save them as `.inf` files.
265 |
266 | ### A Misknown feature
267 |
268 | The vast majority of Windows users, including admins, rely on default policies. However, Windows does not enable many security mechanisms by default ( Windows 11 has a better default strategy, though), which extends the attack surface.
269 |
270 | It can prevent some risky behaviors and force good security hygiene.
271 |
272 | ### Practical examples
273 |
274 | Here are a few examples of security rules you can set:
275 |
276 | * Disable guest accounts: such accounts are not password-protected, so if you don't need them, set the corresponding policy
277 | * Set password expiration age: force users to renew their passwords regularly
278 | * Set minimum passwords length: secure passwords use various chars, lowercases, uppercases, and numbers, but length is even more critical
279 | * Disable Anonymous SID Enumeration: if you don't need that, just drop the functionality, as hackers will likely try to exploit it
280 | * Prohibit User Install: you can prevent users from installing third-party software
281 |
282 | ### Monitor changes
283 |
284 | I do not recommend building custom Powershell scripts to monitor GPO changes unless you master your art. Instead, many editions and cloud-based configurations allow you to be alerted of such changes automatically.
285 |
286 | It's strongly recommended for AD (Active Directory).
287 |
288 | ## Mitigate privilege escalations
289 |
290 | ### A short definition
291 |
292 | Privilege escalation consists of gaining unauthorized privileged access into a system, for example, by hacking an account with high privileges or by elevating the privileges of a classic account.
293 |
294 | You may also read the terms "horizontal" and "vertical." The first one refers to classic attacks when attackers impersonate users with similar access level or steal sessions (e.g.: XSS, CSRF). The term "vertical" is used to describe an **elevation**, a.k.a. when you get higher privileges (e.g., root).
295 |
296 | ### Obvious recommendations
297 |
298 | It might look obvious, but the following _reco_ are helpful:
299 |
300 | * don't give admin privileges to non-admin roles (least privilege principle)
301 | * don't rely on out-of-the-box roles and default permissions (yes, there's a risk of misconfiguration)
302 | * update and patch all the things: users may use Windows Update and applications' automatic updates or package managers such as [chocolatey](https://chocolatey.org/).
303 | * disallow unused protocols and remove remote access tools when it's not needed
304 | * disable services with unquoted service paths
305 | * use password manager or PAM (Privileged Access Management) solutions
306 | * force MFA for **all** accounts (e.g., AD, Cloud)
307 |
308 | ### Don't focus on the tools
309 |
310 | Many evasion techniques can be used to fool signature-based detection. It's better to put your attention on the results and the behaviors rather than the attacking tools.
311 |
312 | Enabling Credential Guard can mitigate credentials thefts seriously. Even if attackers manage to hide evil binaries such as Mimikatz, which is documented, enabling that _fabulous_ `SeDebugPrivilege` capability becomes challenging.
313 |
314 | ### Remove orphaned and guest accounts
315 |
316 | It's not uncommon for attackers to exploit orphaned accounts, especially in Active Directory. Such "ghosts" can be used as a point of entry, as the likelihood of weak password, disabled 2FA/MFA, or default settings tend to increase, and you won't see it coming.
317 |
318 | Unless you're a public platform, there's no reason to keep old accounts you may have created "temporarily" for a short period. It's the same with guest accounts that do no require passwords. The scope for such features seems pretty limited.
319 |
320 | ### Restrict Powershell, don't kill it
321 |
322 | Of course, you could disable it completely, but such radical measure usually creates more problems than it solves. Besides, Powershell commands can actually help forensics and incident response. Administrators also use it to automate security tasks.
323 |
324 | You can start with a group policy, so non-admin users cannot start the Powershell interpreter. There are documented ways to bypass such restrictions (e.g., [PowerShdll](https://github.com/p3nt4/PowerShdll)), but it's still a good layer to add.
325 |
326 | Another approach can consist of whitelisting specific PowerShell scripts only to mitigate the risks. You can reject unsigned scripts and restricting script execution.
327 |
328 | Admins must disable and uninstall any deprecated version of Powershell to mitigate abuses like that:
329 |
330 | ```
331 | PowerShell -Version 2
332 | ```
333 |
334 | Or classic downgrade attacks and injections powered by [unicorn](https://github.com/trustedsec/unicorn).
335 |
336 | Don't forget PowerShell has advanced logging capabilities to record and monitor sensitive commands, like `Invoke`.
337 |
338 | [Read the cheat sheet](https://github.com/d3fenderz/powershell_commands) to learn PowerShell attacks and effective defense mechanisms.
339 |
340 | ### Even more mitigations 🔒
341 |
342 | Some situations are more tricky for attackers:
343 |
344 | * if app developers use fully qualified path when loading DLLs
345 | * if admins change the ACLs of the folder when system privileges are required
346 | * if admins remove the path entry from the SYSTEM path variable when it's not needed
347 | * if only authorized admins can interact with service changes and target path locations
348 | * if file execution is disabled in user directories (e.g., downloads, tmp)
349 | * if `AlwaysInstallElevated` policy is set to disabled [^2] (as you woud expect by default)
350 | * if standard users do no have write permissions in the Registry (policy)
351 |
352 | [Source: Microsoft - Dynamic-Link Security](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/dlls/dynamic-link-library-security?redirectedfrom=MSDN)
353 |
354 | ## Additional tools for casual users
355 |
356 | These two softs are credible alternatives (at least, to me) to the built-in firewall and can even improve your privacy:
357 |
358 | * [simplewall](https://github.com/henrypp/simplewall)
359 | * [tinywall](https://tinywall.pados.hu/download.php)
360 |
361 | ## Best resources
362 |
363 | * [Attacking AD](https://zer1t0.gitlab.io/posts/attacking_ad/)
364 | * [PayloadsAllTheThings - Windows](https://github.com/swisskyrepo/PayloadsAllTheThings/blob/master/Methodology%20and%20Resources/Windows%20-%20Privilege%20Escalation.md)
365 | * [Windows Privesc resources](https://www.willchatham.com/security/windows-privilege-escalation-privesc-resources/)
366 | * [PowerShell loves the Blue Team](https://devblogs.microsoft.com/powershell/powershell-the-blue-team/)
367 | * [Fuzzy Security - Windows Privesc](https://fuzzysecurity.com/tutorials/16.html)
368 | * [Windows local privilege escalation](https://book.hacktricks.xyz/windows-hardening/windows-local-privilege-escalation)
369 | * [Windows Defender review 2022](https://www.comparitech.com/antivirus/reviews/windows-defender-review/)
370 |
371 | [^1]: the term "hive" is supposedly a dev's joke (easter egg), as one of the developers hated bees
372 |
373 | [^2]: it's no uncommon to find the value set to `1` in [vulnerable] machines configured for CTFs, but if your machine has the same configuration, it's a massive risk. Check values in HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Policies\Microsoft\Windows\Installer and HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\Software\Policies\Microsoft\Windows\Installer.
374 |
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62 | States should not allow patents to restrict development and use of
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64 | avoid the special danger that patents applied to a free program could
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66 | patents cannot be used to render the program non-free.
67 |
68 | The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and
69 | modification follow.
70 |
71 | TERMS AND CONDITIONS
72 |
73 | 0. Definitions.
74 |
75 | "This License" refers to version 3 of the GNU General Public License.
76 |
77 | "Copyright" also means copyright-like laws that apply to other kinds of
78 | works, such as semiconductor masks.
79 |
80 | "The Program" refers to any copyrightable work licensed under this
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89 | A "covered work" means either the unmodified Program or a work based
90 | on the Program.
91 |
92 | To "propagate" a work means to do anything with it that, without
93 | permission, would make you directly or secondarily liable for
94 | infringement under applicable copyright law, except executing it on a
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112 | 1. Source Code.
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148 | can regenerate automatically from other parts of the Corresponding
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150 |
151 | The Corresponding Source for a work in source code form is that
152 | same work.
153 |
154 | 2. Basic Permissions.
155 |
156 | All rights granted under this License are granted for the term of
157 | copyright on the Program, and are irrevocable provided the stated
158 | conditions are met. This License explicitly affirms your unlimited
159 | permission to run the unmodified Program. The output from running a
160 | covered work is covered by this License only if the output, given its
161 | content, constitutes a covered work. This License acknowledges your
162 | rights of fair use or other equivalent, as provided by copyright law.
163 |
164 | You may make, run and propagate covered works that you do not
165 | convey, without conditions so long as your license otherwise remains
166 | in force. You may convey covered works to others for the sole purpose
167 | of having them make modifications exclusively for you, or provide you
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174 |
175 | Conveying under any other circumstances is permitted solely under
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177 | makes it unnecessary.
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179 | 3. Protecting Users' Legal Rights From Anti-Circumvention Law.
180 |
181 | No covered work shall be deemed part of an effective technological
182 | measure under any applicable law fulfilling obligations under article
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184 | similar laws prohibiting or restricting circumvention of such
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186 |
187 | When you convey a covered work, you waive any legal power to forbid
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192 | users, your or third parties' legal rights to forbid circumvention of
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195 | 4. Conveying Verbatim Copies.
196 |
197 | You may convey verbatim copies of the Program's source code as you
198 | receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously and
199 | appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice;
200 | keep intact all notices stating that this License and any
201 | non-permissive terms added in accord with section 7 apply to the code;
202 | keep intact all notices of the absence of any warranty; and give all
203 | recipients a copy of this License along with the Program.
204 |
205 | You may charge any price or no price for each copy that you convey,
206 | and you may offer support or warranty protection for a fee.
207 |
208 | 5. Conveying Modified Source Versions.
209 |
210 | You may convey a work based on the Program, or the modifications to
211 | produce it from the Program, in the form of source code under the
212 | terms of section 4, provided that you also meet all of these conditions:
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214 | a) The work must carry prominent notices stating that you modified
215 | it, and giving a relevant date.
216 |
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220 | "keep intact all notices".
221 |
222 | c) You must license the entire work, as a whole, under this
223 | License to anyone who comes into possession of a copy. This
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226 | regardless of how they are packaged. This License gives no
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228 | invalidate such permission if you have separately received it.
229 |
230 | d) If the work has interactive user interfaces, each must display
231 | Appropriate Legal Notices; however, if the Program has interactive
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233 | work need not make them do so.
234 |
235 | A compilation of a covered work with other separate and independent
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237 | and which are not combined with it such as to form a larger program,
238 | in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an
239 | "aggregate" if the compilation and its resulting copyright are not
240 | used to limit the access or legal rights of the compilation's users
241 | beyond what the individual works permit. Inclusion of a covered work
242 | in an aggregate does not cause this License to apply to the other
243 | parts of the aggregate.
244 |
245 | 6. Conveying Non-Source Forms.
246 |
247 | You may convey a covered work in object code form under the terms
248 | of sections 4 and 5, provided that you also convey the
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250 | in one of these ways:
251 |
252 | a) Convey the object code in, or embodied in, a physical product
253 | (including a physical distribution medium), accompanied by the
254 | Corresponding Source fixed on a durable physical medium
255 | customarily used for software interchange.
256 |
257 | b) Convey the object code in, or embodied in, a physical product
258 | (including a physical distribution medium), accompanied by a
259 | written offer, valid for at least three years and valid for as
260 | long as you offer spare parts or customer support for that product
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262 | copy of the Corresponding Source for all the software in the
263 | product that is covered by this License, on a durable physical
264 | medium customarily used for software interchange, for a price no
265 | more than your reasonable cost of physically performing this
266 | conveying of source, or (2) access to copy the
267 | Corresponding Source from a network server at no charge.
268 |
269 | c) Convey individual copies of the object code with a copy of the
270 | written offer to provide the Corresponding Source. This
271 | alternative is allowed only occasionally and noncommercially, and
272 | only if you received the object code with such an offer, in accord
273 | with subsection 6b.
274 |
275 | d) Convey the object code by offering access from a designated
276 | place (gratis or for a charge), and offer equivalent access to the
277 | Corresponding Source in the same way through the same place at no
278 | further charge. You need not require recipients to copy the
279 | Corresponding Source along with the object code. If the place to
280 | copy the object code is a network server, the Corresponding Source
281 | may be on a different server (operated by you or a third party)
282 | that supports equivalent copying facilities, provided you maintain
283 | clear directions next to the object code saying where to find the
284 | Corresponding Source. Regardless of what server hosts the
285 | Corresponding Source, you remain obligated to ensure that it is
286 | available for as long as needed to satisfy these requirements.
287 |
288 | e) Convey the object code using peer-to-peer transmission, provided
289 | you inform other peers where the object code and Corresponding
290 | Source of the work are being offered to the general public at no
291 | charge under subsection 6d.
292 |
293 | A separable portion of the object code, whose source code is excluded
294 | from the Corresponding Source as a System Library, need not be
295 | included in conveying the object code work.
296 |
297 | A "User Product" is either (1) a "consumer product", which means any
298 | tangible personal property which is normally used for personal, family,
299 | or household purposes, or (2) anything designed or sold for incorporation
300 | into a dwelling. In determining whether a product is a consumer product,
301 | doubtful cases shall be resolved in favor of coverage. For a particular
302 | product received by a particular user, "normally used" refers to a
303 | typical or common use of that class of product, regardless of the status
304 | of the particular user or of the way in which the particular user
305 | actually uses, or expects or is expected to use, the product. A product
306 | is a consumer product regardless of whether the product has substantial
307 | commercial, industrial or non-consumer uses, unless such uses represent
308 | the only significant mode of use of the product.
309 |
310 | "Installation Information" for a User Product means any methods,
311 | procedures, authorization keys, or other information required to install
312 | and execute modified versions of a covered work in that User Product from
313 | a modified version of its Corresponding Source. The information must
314 | suffice to ensure that the continued functioning of the modified object
315 | code is in no case prevented or interfered with solely because
316 | modification has been made.
317 |
318 | If you convey an object code work under this section in, or with, or
319 | specifically for use in, a User Product, and the conveying occurs as
320 | part of a transaction in which the right of possession and use of the
321 | User Product is transferred to the recipient in perpetuity or for a
322 | fixed term (regardless of how the transaction is characterized), the
323 | Corresponding Source conveyed under this section must be accompanied
324 | by the Installation Information. But this requirement does not apply
325 | if neither you nor any third party retains the ability to install
326 | modified object code on the User Product (for example, the work has
327 | been installed in ROM).
328 |
329 | The requirement to provide Installation Information does not include a
330 | requirement to continue to provide support service, warranty, or updates
331 | for a work that has been modified or installed by the recipient, or for
332 | the User Product in which it has been modified or installed. Access to a
333 | network may be denied when the modification itself materially and
334 | adversely affects the operation of the network or violates the rules and
335 | protocols for communication across the network.
336 |
337 | Corresponding Source conveyed, and Installation Information provided,
338 | in accord with this section must be in a format that is publicly
339 | documented (and with an implementation available to the public in
340 | source code form), and must require no special password or key for
341 | unpacking, reading or copying.
342 |
343 | 7. Additional Terms.
344 |
345 | "Additional permissions" are terms that supplement the terms of this
346 | License by making exceptions from one or more of its conditions.
347 | Additional permissions that are applicable to the entire Program shall
348 | be treated as though they were included in this License, to the extent
349 | that they are valid under applicable law. If additional permissions
350 | apply only to part of the Program, that part may be used separately
351 | under those permissions, but the entire Program remains governed by
352 | this License without regard to the additional permissions.
353 |
354 | When you convey a copy of a covered work, you may at your option
355 | remove any additional permissions from that copy, or from any part of
356 | it. (Additional permissions may be written to require their own
357 | removal in certain cases when you modify the work.) You may place
358 | additional permissions on material, added by you to a covered work,
359 | for which you have or can give appropriate copyright permission.
360 |
361 | Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, for material you
362 | add to a covered work, you may (if authorized by the copyright holders of
363 | that material) supplement the terms of this License with terms:
364 |
365 | a) Disclaiming warranty or limiting liability differently from the
366 | terms of sections 15 and 16 of this License; or
367 |
368 | b) Requiring preservation of specified reasonable legal notices or
369 | author attributions in that material or in the Appropriate Legal
370 | Notices displayed by works containing it; or
371 |
372 | c) Prohibiting misrepresentation of the origin of that material, or
373 | requiring that modified versions of such material be marked in
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375 |
376 | d) Limiting the use for publicity purposes of names of licensors or
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379 | e) Declining to grant rights under trademark law for use of some
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381 |
382 | f) Requiring indemnification of licensors and authors of that
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385 | any liability that these contractual assumptions directly impose on
386 | those licensors and authors.
387 |
388 | All other non-permissive additional terms are considered "further
389 | restrictions" within the meaning of section 10. If the Program as you
390 | received it, or any part of it, contains a notice stating that it is
391 | governed by this License along with a term that is a further
392 | restriction, you may remove that term. If a license document contains
393 | a further restriction but permits relicensing or conveying under this
394 | License, you may add to a covered work material governed by the terms
395 | of that license document, provided that the further restriction does
396 | not survive such relicensing or conveying.
397 |
398 | If you add terms to a covered work in accord with this section, you
399 | must place, in the relevant source files, a statement of the
400 | additional terms that apply to those files, or a notice indicating
401 | where to find the applicable terms.
402 |
403 | Additional terms, permissive or non-permissive, may be stated in the
404 | form of a separately written license, or stated as exceptions;
405 | the above requirements apply either way.
406 |
407 | 8. Termination.
408 |
409 | You may not propagate or modify a covered work except as expressly
410 | provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to propagate or
411 | modify it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under
412 | this License (including any patent licenses granted under the third
413 | paragraph of section 11).
414 |
415 | However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your
416 | license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a)
417 | provisionally, unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and
418 | finally terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright
419 | holder fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means
420 | prior to 60 days after the cessation.
421 |
422 | Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is
423 | reinstated permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the
424 | violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have
425 | received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that
426 | copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after
427 | your receipt of the notice.
428 |
429 | Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the
430 | licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under
431 | this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently
432 | reinstated, you do not qualify to receive new licenses for the same
433 | material under section 10.
434 |
435 | 9. Acceptance Not Required for Having Copies.
436 |
437 | You are not required to accept this License in order to receive or
438 | run a copy of the Program. Ancillary propagation of a covered work
439 | occurring solely as a consequence of using peer-to-peer transmission
440 | to receive a copy likewise does not require acceptance. However,
441 | nothing other than this License grants you permission to propagate or
442 | modify any covered work. These actions infringe copyright if you do
443 | not accept this License. Therefore, by modifying or propagating a
444 | covered work, you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so.
445 |
446 | 10. Automatic Licensing of Downstream Recipients.
447 |
448 | Each time you convey a covered work, the recipient automatically
449 | receives a license from the original licensors, to run, modify and
450 | propagate that work, subject to this License. You are not responsible
451 | for enforcing compliance by third parties with this License.
452 |
453 | An "entity transaction" is a transaction transferring control of an
454 | organization, or substantially all assets of one, or subdividing an
455 | organization, or merging organizations. If propagation of a covered
456 | work results from an entity transaction, each party to that
457 | transaction who receives a copy of the work also receives whatever
458 | licenses to the work the party's predecessor in interest had or could
459 | give under the previous paragraph, plus a right to possession of the
460 | Corresponding Source of the work from the predecessor in interest, if
461 | the predecessor has it or can get it with reasonable efforts.
462 |
463 | You may not impose any further restrictions on the exercise of the
464 | rights granted or affirmed under this License. For example, you may
465 | not impose a license fee, royalty, or other charge for exercise of
466 | rights granted under this License, and you may not initiate litigation
467 | (including a cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that
468 | any patent claim is infringed by making, using, selling, offering for
469 | sale, or importing the Program or any portion of it.
470 |
471 | 11. Patents.
472 |
473 | A "contributor" is a copyright holder who authorizes use under this
474 | License of the Program or a work on which the Program is based. The
475 | work thus licensed is called the contributor's "contributor version".
476 |
477 | A contributor's "essential patent claims" are all patent claims
478 | owned or controlled by the contributor, whether already acquired or
479 | hereafter acquired, that would be infringed by some manner, permitted
480 | by this License, of making, using, or selling its contributor version,
481 | but do not include claims that would be infringed only as a
482 | consequence of further modification of the contributor version. For
483 | purposes of this definition, "control" includes the right to grant
484 | patent sublicenses in a manner consistent with the requirements of
485 | this License.
486 |
487 | Each contributor grants you a non-exclusive, worldwide, royalty-free
488 | patent license under the contributor's essential patent claims, to
489 | make, use, sell, offer for sale, import and otherwise run, modify and
490 | propagate the contents of its contributor version.
491 |
492 | In the following three paragraphs, a "patent license" is any express
493 | agreement or commitment, however denominated, not to enforce a patent
494 | (such as an express permission to practice a patent or covenant not to
495 | sue for patent infringement). To "grant" such a patent license to a
496 | party means to make such an agreement or commitment not to enforce a
497 | patent against the party.
498 |
499 | If you convey a covered work, knowingly relying on a patent license,
500 | and the Corresponding Source of the work is not available for anyone
501 | to copy, free of charge and under the terms of this License, through a
502 | publicly available network server or other readily accessible means,
503 | then you must either (1) cause the Corresponding Source to be so
504 | available, or (2) arrange to deprive yourself of the benefit of the
505 | patent license for this particular work, or (3) arrange, in a manner
506 | consistent with the requirements of this License, to extend the patent
507 | license to downstream recipients. "Knowingly relying" means you have
508 | actual knowledge that, but for the patent license, your conveying the
509 | covered work in a country, or your recipient's use of the covered work
510 | in a country, would infringe one or more identifiable patents in that
511 | country that you have reason to believe are valid.
512 |
513 | If, pursuant to or in connection with a single transaction or
514 | arrangement, you convey, or propagate by procuring conveyance of, a
515 | covered work, and grant a patent license to some of the parties
516 | receiving the covered work authorizing them to use, propagate, modify
517 | or convey a specific copy of the covered work, then the patent license
518 | you grant is automatically extended to all recipients of the covered
519 | work and works based on it.
520 |
521 | A patent license is "discriminatory" if it does not include within
522 | the scope of its coverage, prohibits the exercise of, or is
523 | conditioned on the non-exercise of one or more of the rights that are
524 | specifically granted under this License. You may not convey a covered
525 | work if you are a party to an arrangement with a third party that is
526 | in the business of distributing software, under which you make payment
527 | to the third party based on the extent of your activity of conveying
528 | the work, and under which the third party grants, to any of the
529 | parties who would receive the covered work from you, a discriminatory
530 | patent license (a) in connection with copies of the covered work
531 | conveyed by you (or copies made from those copies), or (b) primarily
532 | for and in connection with specific products or compilations that
533 | contain the covered work, unless you entered into that arrangement,
534 | or that patent license was granted, prior to 28 March 2007.
535 |
536 | Nothing in this License shall be construed as excluding or limiting
537 | any implied license or other defenses to infringement that may
538 | otherwise be available to you under applicable patent law.
539 |
540 | 12. No Surrender of Others' Freedom.
541 |
542 | If conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or
543 | otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not
544 | excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot convey a
545 | covered work so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this
546 | License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you may
547 | not convey it at all. For example, if you agree to terms that obligate you
548 | to collect a royalty for further conveying from those to whom you convey
549 | the Program, the only way you could satisfy both those terms and this
550 | License would be to refrain entirely from conveying the Program.
551 |
552 | 13. Use with the GNU Affero General Public License.
553 |
554 | Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, you have
555 | permission to link or combine any covered work with a work licensed
556 | under version 3 of the GNU Affero General Public License into a single
557 | combined work, and to convey the resulting work. The terms of this
558 | License will continue to apply to the part which is the covered work,
559 | but the special requirements of the GNU Affero General Public License,
560 | section 13, concerning interaction through a network will apply to the
561 | combination as such.
562 |
563 | 14. Revised Versions of this License.
564 |
565 | The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of
566 | the GNU General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will
567 | be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to
568 | address new problems or concerns.
569 |
570 | Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the
571 | Program specifies that a certain numbered version of the GNU General
572 | Public License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the
573 | option of following the terms and conditions either of that numbered
574 | version or of any later version published by the Free Software
575 | Foundation. If the Program does not specify a version number of the
576 | GNU General Public License, you may choose any version ever published
577 | by the Free Software Foundation.
578 |
579 | If the Program specifies that a proxy can decide which future
580 | versions of the GNU General Public License can be used, that proxy's
581 | public statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you
582 | to choose that version for the Program.
583 |
584 | Later license versions may give you additional or different
585 | permissions. However, no additional obligations are imposed on any
586 | author or copyright holder as a result of your choosing to follow a
587 | later version.
588 |
589 | 15. Disclaimer of Warranty.
590 |
591 | THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY
592 | APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT
593 | HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM "AS IS" WITHOUT WARRANTY
594 | OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO,
595 | THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
596 | PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM
597 | IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF
598 | ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION.
599 |
600 | 16. Limitation of Liability.
601 |
602 | IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING
603 | WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MODIFIES AND/OR CONVEYS
604 | THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY
605 | GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE
606 | USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF
607 | DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD
608 | PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS),
609 | EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
610 | SUCH DAMAGES.
611 |
612 | 17. Interpretation of Sections 15 and 16.
613 |
614 | If the disclaimer of warranty and limitation of liability provided
615 | above cannot be given local legal effect according to their terms,
616 | reviewing courts shall apply local law that most closely approximates
617 | an absolute waiver of all civil liability in connection with the
618 | Program, unless a warranty or assumption of liability accompanies a
619 | copy of the Program in return for a fee.
620 |
621 | END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
622 |
623 | How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs
624 |
625 | If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest
626 | possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it
627 | free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these terms.
628 |
629 | To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest
630 | to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively
631 | state the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least
632 | the "copyright" line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.
633 |
634 |
635 | Copyright (C)
636 |
637 | This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
638 | it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
639 | the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
640 | (at your option) any later version.
641 |
642 | This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
643 | but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
644 | MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the
645 | GNU General Public License for more details.
646 |
647 | You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
648 | along with this program. If not, see .
649 |
650 | Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.
651 |
652 | If the program does terminal interaction, make it output a short
653 | notice like this when it starts in an interactive mode:
654 |
655 | Copyright (C)
656 | This program comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'.
657 | This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
658 | under certain conditions; type `show c' for details.
659 |
660 | The hypothetical commands `show w' and `show c' should show the appropriate
661 | parts of the General Public License. Of course, your program's commands
662 | might be different; for a GUI interface, you would use an "about box".
663 |
664 | You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or school,
665 | if any, to sign a "copyright disclaimer" for the program, if necessary.
666 | For more information on this, and how to apply and follow the GNU GPL, see
667 | .
668 |
669 | The GNU General Public License does not permit incorporating your program
670 | into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you
671 | may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with
672 | the library. If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Lesser General
673 | Public License instead of this License. But first, please read
674 | .
675 |
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