├── crawled ├── Arts#Animation.txt ├── News#Media.txt ├── Society#Issues.txt ├── Society#Work.txt ├── Sports#Skating.txt ├── Sports#Soccer.txt ├── Health#Alternative.txt ├── Netscape#Sidebar.txt ├── News#Alternative.txt ├── Recreation#Locks.txt ├── Recreation#Models.txt ├── Recreation#Outdoors.txt ├── Science#Environment.txt ├── Sports#Equestrian.txt ├── Sports#Football.txt ├── Business#Environment.txt ├── Computers#Algorithms.txt ├── Computers#Open_Source.txt ├── Reference#Directories.txt ├── Shopping#Classifieds.txt ├── Sports#Track_and_Field.txt ├── Business#Business_Services.txt ├── Business#Construction_and_Maintenance.txt ├── Business#Consumer_Goods_and_Services.txt ├── Business#Industrial_Goods_and_Services.txt ├── Computers#Hardware.txt ├── Society#Advice.txt ├── Computers#CAD_and_CAM.txt ├── Sports#Events.txt ├── Society#Relationships.txt ├── Business#Arts_and_Entertainment.txt ├── Recreation#Autos.txt ├── Society#Sexuality.txt ├── Business#Aerospace_and_Defense.txt ├── Sports#Cricket.txt ├── Sports#Motorsports.txt ├── Home#Moving_and_Relocating.txt ├── Society#Activism.txt ├── Shopping#Publications.txt ├── Arts#People.txt ├── Society#People.txt ├── Business#Hospitality.txt ├── Shopping#Gifts.txt ├── Business#Financial_Services.txt ├── News#Magazines_and_E-zines.txt ├── Recreation#Travel.txt ├── Arts#Awards.txt ├── Shopping#Home_and_Garden.txt ├── Arts#Bodyart.txt ├── Games#Puzzles.txt ├── Society#Holidays.txt ├── Shopping#Holidays.txt ├── Recreation#Living_History.txt ├── News#Analysis_and_Opinion.txt ├── Arts#Crafts.txt ├── Shopping#Crafts.txt ├── Games#Roleplaying.txt ├── Reference#Quotations.txt ├── Shopping#Antiques_and_Collectibles.txt ├── Recreation#Antiques.txt ├── Computers#Companies.txt ├── Business#Automotive.txt ├── Science#Earth_Sciences.txt ├── Computers#Security.txt ├── Shopping#Children.txt ├── Recreation#Humor.txt ├── Society#Subcultures.txt ├── Recreation.txt ├── Shopping#Recreation.txt ├── Business#Textiles_and_Nonwovens.txt ├── Business#Opportunities.txt ├── Games#Board_Games.txt ├── Society#Government.txt ├── News#Breaking_News.txt ├── Business#Information_Technology.txt ├── Reference#Almanacs.txt ├── Regional#Oceania.txt ├── Games#Online.txt ├── Sports#Hockey.txt └── Recreation#Guns.txt ├── .tagger_trainer.py.swp ├── not_found.txt ├── README.txt ├── tagger_trainer.py └── topics.txt /crawled/Arts#Animation.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/News#Media.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Society#Issues.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Society#Work.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Sports#Skating.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Sports#Soccer.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Health#Alternative.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Netscape#Sidebar.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/News#Alternative.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Recreation#Locks.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Recreation#Models.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Recreation#Outdoors.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Science#Environment.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Sports#Equestrian.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Sports#Football.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Business#Environment.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Computers#Algorithms.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Computers#Open_Source.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Reference#Directories.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Shopping#Classifieds.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Sports#Track_and_Field.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Business#Business_Services.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Business#Construction_and_Maintenance.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Business#Consumer_Goods_and_Services.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Business#Industrial_Goods_and_Services.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Computers#Hardware.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | another name or slang for: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Society#Advice.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Advice or advise may refer to: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Computers#CAD_and_CAM.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Cam or CAM may also refer to: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Sports#Events.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Event can refer to many things such as: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /.tagger_trainer.py.swp: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- https://raw.githubusercontent.com/grangier/tagger_trainer/master/.tagger_trainer.py.swp -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Society#Relationships.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Relationship or relationships may refer to: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Business#Arts_and_Entertainment.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Arts and Entertainment may refer to: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Recreation#Autos.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Auto, from Greek αὐτο- auto- "self, one's own", may refer to: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Society#Sexuality.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Sexuality is the quality of being sexual or possessing sex. It may also refer to: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Business#Aerospace_and_Defense.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Defense (AmE) or defence (BrE, CanE and AuE) (see American and British English spelling differences for -ce/-se) may refer to: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Sports#Cricket.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Two different types of balls used in cricket: 3 | 4 | i) A used white ball, played with, in many limited overs cricket matches, especially those involving floodlights (day/night matches) (left). ii) A used red ball, played with, in test matches and first class cricket (right). -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Sports#Motorsports.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Motorsport or motorsports is the group of competitive events which primarily involve the use of motorized vehicles, whether for racing or non-racing competition. MotoSport refers to motorcycle racing specifically and includes off-road racing such as motocross. 3 | 4 | Motor racing is the subset of motorsport/motosport activities which involve competitors racing against each other. 5 | 6 | Forms of motorsport which do not involve racing include drifting, regularity rally, motorcycle trials, gymkanas, Freestyle Motocross and tractor pulling. 7 | 8 | Motorsport was a demonstration event at the 1900 Summer Olympics. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /not_found.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Writers_Resource 2 | Investing 3 | Major_Companie 4 | Retail_Trade 5 | Small_Busines 6 | Data_Format 7 | Mobile_Computing 8 | Trading_Card_Game 9 | Yard,_Deck, 10 | Child_Health 11 | Home_Health 12 | Men's_Health 13 | Mental_Health 14 | Senior_Health 15 | Teen_Health 16 | Weight_Los 17 | Women's_Health 18 | Apartment_Living 19 | Consumer_Information 20 | Do-It-Yourself 21 | Emergency_Preparation 22 | Homeowner 23 | Home_Improvement 24 | Personal_Finance 25 | Rural_Living 26 | Urban_Living 27 | By_Subject 28 | Current_Event 29 | Internet_Broadcast 30 | Personalized_New 31 | Theme_Park 32 | Anomalie 33 | Educational_Resource 34 | Consumer_Electronic 35 | Lifestyle_Choice 36 | Support_Group 37 | Cue_Sport 38 | Informal_Sport 39 | Laser_Game 40 | PesApallo 41 | Strength_Sport 42 | Water_Sport 43 | Winter_Sport 44 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /README.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | tagger_trainer - a training data collector for an automated text categorizer/tagger 2 | created by Yasser Ebrahim, 07NOV12 3 | ---- 4 | 5 | This script takes an input file containing a taxonomy of categories of maximum depth 2 (categories and subcategories), then it tries to find corresponding wikipedia pages for each cateogry/subcategory by traversing English wikipedia urls whose suffix is the category name. It uses Goose, a python library that extracts article body text from a given url. You can read more about Goose here: https://github.com/xgdlm/python-goose 6 | 7 | The script creates a file for each category/subcategory insdie the directory "crawled." In the file is pure text extracted from the url, which can later be used to train a tagger. A simple urls_file is included called topics.txt 8 | 9 | Usage: 10 | python tagger_trainer.py urls_file.txt 11 | 12 | ***Plese note that this requires Goose to be installed before running. 13 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Home#Moving_and_Relocating.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Relocation, also known as moving is the process of vacating a fixed location (such as a residence or business) and settling in a different one. A move can be to a nearby location within the same neighborhood, a much farther location in a different city, or sometimes a different country. On the Holmes and Rahe stress scale for adults, "change of residence" is considered a stressful activity, assigned 20 points (with death of spouse being ranked the highest at 100) , although other changes on the scale (e.g. "change in living conditions", "change in social activities") often occur as a result of relocating, making the overall stress level potentially higher. 3 | 4 | Various studies have found that moving house is often particularly stressful for children and is sometimes associated with long-term problems. 5 | 6 | Often big corporations relocate their employees for short- to long-term assignments abroad. Quite often such relocation is supported by a relocation service, which assists internationally assigned personnel in finding and/or moving into a new house, organizing school for children, conducting local culture training and in general terms, supporting integration into the new location and/or culture. 7 | 8 | Individual members of skilled professions may also independently find work in countries to which they are not native. In these cases, the support systems mentioned above may be absent. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Society#Activism.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, or direct social, political, economic, or environmental change. Activism can take a wide range of forms from writing letters to newspapers or politicians, political campaigning, economic activism such as boycotts or preferentially patronizing businesses, rallies, street marches, strikes, sit-ins, and hunger strikes. 3 | 4 | Activists can function in roles as public officials, as in judicial activism. Arthur Schlesinger Jr. introduced the term "judicial activism" in a January 1947 Fortune magazine article titled "The Supreme Court: 1947." 5 | 6 | Some activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly, rather than to persuade governments to change or not to change laws. The cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and generally does not lobby or protest politically, and clergymen often exhort their parishioners to follow a particular moral code or system. 7 | 8 | As with those who engage other activities such as singing or running, the term may apply broadly to anyone who engages in it even briefly, or be more narrowly limited to those for whom it is a vocation, habit or characteristic practice. In the narrower sense environmental activists that align themselves with Earth First or Road Protestors would commonly be labelled activists, whilst a local community fighting to stop their park or green being sold off or built on would fit the broader application, due to their using similar means to similarly conservative ends. In short activism is not always an action by Activists. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Shopping#Publications.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | To publish is to make content available to the general public. While specific use of the term may vary among countries, it is usually applied to text, images, or other audio-visual content on any traditional medium, including paper (newspapers, magazines, catalogs, etc.). The word publication means the act of publishing, and also refers to any printed copies. 3 | 4 | "Publication" is a name {{}} term in legal contexts and especially important in copyright legislation. An author of a work generally is the initial owner of the copyright on the work. One of the copyrights granted to the author of a work is the exclusive right to publish the script 5 | 6 | In the United States, publication is defined as: 7 | 8 | Furthermore, the right to publish a work is an exclusive right of the copyright owner (17 USC 106), and violating this right (e.g. by disseminating copies of the work without the copyright owner's consent) is a copyright infringement (17 USC 501(a)), and the copyright owner can demand (by suing in court) that e.g. copies distributed against his will be confiscated and destroyed (17 USC 502, 17 USC 503). 9 | 10 | The definition of "publication" as "distribution of copies to the general public with the consent of the author" is also supported by the Berne Convention, which makes mention of "copies" in article 3(3), where "published works" are defined. In the Universal Copyright Convention, "publication" is defined in article VI as "the reproduction in tangible form and the general distribution to the public of copies of a work from which it can be read or otherwise visually perceived." Many countries around the world follow this definition, although some make some exceptions for particular kinds of works. In Germany, §6 of the Urheberrechtsgesetz additionally considers works of the visual arts (such as sculptures) "published" if they have been made permanently accessible by the general public (i.e., erecting a sculpture on public grounds is publication in Germany). Australia and the UK (as the U.S.) do not have this exception and generally require the distribution of copies necessary for publication. In the case of sculptures, the copies must be even three-dimensional. 11 | 12 | In biological classification (taxonomy), the publication of the description of a taxon has to comply with some rules. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Arts#People.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | A people is a plurality of persons considered as a whole, as in an ethnic group or nation. Collectively, for example, Jews are known as "the Jewish people", European Gypsies comprise the bulk of "the Romani people", and Palestinian Arabs have started to be called "the Palestinian people". 3 | 4 | Various republics govern, or claim to govern, in the name of the people. Both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire used the Latin term Senatus Populusque Romanus, (the Senate and People of Rome). This term was fixed to Roman legionary standards, and even after the Roman Emperors achieved a state of total personal autarchy, they continued to wield their power in the name of the Senate and People of Rome. 5 | 6 | A People's Republic is typically a Marxist or socialist one-party state that claims to govern on behalf of the people. Populism is another umbrella term for various political tendencies that claim to represent the people, usually with an implication that they serve the common people instead of the elite. 7 | 8 | Chapter One, Article One of the Charter of the United Nations states that peoples have the right to self-determination. 9 | 10 | In criminal law, in certain jurisdictions, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the People. Several U.S. states, including California, Illinois, and New York, use this style. Citations outside the jurisdictions in question usually substitute the name of the state for the words "the People" in the case captions. Four states — Massachusetts, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky — refer to themselves as the Commonwealth in case captions and legal process. Other states, such as Indiana, typically refer to themselves as the State in case captions and legal process. Outside the United States, criminal trials in Ireland and the Philippines are prosecuted in the name of the people of their respective states. 11 | 12 | The political theory underlying this format is that criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the sovereign; thus, in these U.S. states, the "people" are judged to be the sovereign, even as in the United Kingdom and other dependencies of the British Crown, criminal prosecutions are typically brought in the name of the Crown. "The people" identifies the entire body of the citizens of a jurisdiction invested with political power or gathered for political purposes. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Society#People.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | A people is a plurality of persons considered as a whole, as in an ethnic group or nation. Collectively, for example, Jews are known as "the Jewish people", European Gypsies comprise the bulk of "the Romani people", and Palestinian Arabs have started to be called "the Palestinian people". 3 | 4 | Various republics govern, or claim to govern, in the name of the people. Both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire used the Latin term Senatus Populusque Romanus, (the Senate and People of Rome). This term was fixed to Roman legionary standards, and even after the Roman Emperors achieved a state of total personal autarchy, they continued to wield their power in the name of the Senate and People of Rome. 5 | 6 | A People's Republic is typically a Marxist or socialist one-party state that claims to govern on behalf of the people. Populism is another umbrella term for various political tendencies that claim to represent the people, usually with an implication that they serve the common people instead of the elite. 7 | 8 | Chapter One, Article One of the Charter of the United Nations states that peoples have the right to self-determination. 9 | 10 | In criminal law, in certain jurisdictions, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the People. Several U.S. states, including California, Illinois, and New York, use this style. Citations outside the jurisdictions in question usually substitute the name of the state for the words "the People" in the case captions. Four states — Massachusetts, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky — refer to themselves as the Commonwealth in case captions and legal process. Other states, such as Indiana, typically refer to themselves as the State in case captions and legal process. Outside the United States, criminal trials in Ireland and the Philippines are prosecuted in the name of the people of their respective states. 11 | 12 | The political theory underlying this format is that criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the sovereign; thus, in these U.S. states, the "people" are judged to be the sovereign, even as in the United Kingdom and other dependencies of the British Crown, criminal prosecutions are typically brought in the name of the Crown. "The people" identifies the entire body of the citizens of a jurisdiction invested with political power or gathered for political purposes. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Business#Hospitality.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Hospitality is the relationship between guest and host, or the act or practice of being hospitable. Specifically, this includes the reception and entertainment of guests, visitors, or strangers. 3 | 4 | The word hospitality derives from the Latin hospes , which is formed from hostis, which originally meant "to have power." 5 | 6 | In the West today hospitality is rarely a matter of protection and survival, and is more associated with etiquette and entertainment. However, it still involves showing respect for one's guests, providing for their needs, and treating them as equals. Cultures and subcultures vary in the extent to which one is expected to show hospitality to strangers, as opposed to personal friends or members of one's in-group. 7 | 8 | Hospitality ethics is a discipline that studies this usage of hospitality. 9 | 10 | The Pakhtun people of South-Central Asia, pre-dominant in the all provinces of Afghanistan have a strong code of hospitality. They are a people characterized by their use of an ancient set of ethics, the first principle of which is Milmastiya or Hospitality. The general area of Pakhtunistan is also nicknamed The Land of Hospitality. 11 | 12 | To the ancient Greeks, hospitality was a divine right. The host was expected to make sure the needs of his guests were seen to. The ancient Greek term xenia, or theoxenia when a god was involved, expressed this ritualized guest-friendship relation. In Greek society a person's ability to abide the laws to hospitality determined nobility and social standing. 13 | 14 | Celtic societies also valued the concept of hospitality, especially in terms of protection. A host who granted a person's request for refuge was expected not only to provide food and shelter to his/her guest, but to make sure they did not come to harm while under their care. 15 | 16 | In India, hospitality is based on the principle Atithi Devo Bhava, meaning "the guest is God." This principle is shown in a number of stories where a guest is literally a god who rewards the provider of hospitality. From this stems the Indian approach of graciousness towards guests at home, and in all social situations. 17 | 18 | Hospitality as a cultural norm or value is an established sociological phenomenon that people study and write papers about (see references, and Hospitality ethics). Some regions have become stereotyped as exhibiting a particular style of hospitality. Examples include: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Shopping#Gifts.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | A gift or a present is the transfer of something without the expectation of payment. Although gift-giving might involve an expectation of reciprocity, a gift is meant to be free. In many human societies, the act of mutually exchanging money, goods, etc. may contribute to social cohesion. Economists have elaborated the economics of gift-giving into the notion of a gift economy. By extension the term gift can refer to anything that makes the other happier or less sad, especially as a favor, including forgiveness and kindness. 3 | 4 | When material objects are given as gifts, in many cultures they are traditionally packaged in some manner. For example, in Western culture, gifts are often wrapped in wrapping paper and accompanied by a gift note which may note the occasion, the recipient's name, and the giver's name. In Chinese culture, red wrapping connotes luck. 5 | 6 | The occasion may be: 7 | 8 | At common law, for a gift to have legal effect, it was required that there be (1) intent by the donor to give a gift, and (2) delivery to the recipient of the item to be given as a gift. 9 | 10 | In some countries, certain types of gifts above a certain monetary amount are subject to taxation. For the United States, see Gift tax in the United States. 11 | 12 | In some contexts gift giving can be construed as bribery. This tends to occur in situations where the gift is given with an implicit or explicit agreement between the giver of the gift and its receiver that some type of service will be rendered (often outside of normal legitimate methods) because of the gift. Some groups, such as government workers, may have strict rules concerning gift giving and receiving so as to avoid the appearance of impropriety. 13 | 14 | Lewis Hyde remarks in The Gift that Christianity considers the Incarnation and subsequent death of Jesus to be the greatest gift to humankind, and that the Jataka contains a tale of the Buddha in his incarnation as the Wise Hare giving the ultimate alms by offering himself up as a meal for Sakka. (Hyde, 1983, 58-60) 15 | 16 | In the Eastern Orthodox Church the bread and wine that are consecrated during the Divine Liturgy are referred to as "the Gifts." They are first of all the gifts of the community (both individually and corporately) to God, and then, after the epiklesis, the Gifts of the Body and Blood of Christ to the Church. 17 | 18 | Ritual sacrifices can be seen as return gifts to a deity. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Business#Financial_Services.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Financial services are the economic services provided by the finance industry, which encompasses a broad range of organizations that manage money, including credit unions, banks, credit card companies, insurance companies, consumer finance companies, stock brokerages, investment funds and some government sponsored enterprises. As of 2004, the financial services industry represented 20% of the market capitalization of the S&P 500 in the United States. 3 | 4 | The term "financial services" became more prevalent in the United States partly as a result of the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of the late 1990s, which enabled different types of companies operating in the U.S. financial services industry at that time to merge. 5 | 6 | Companies usually have two distinct approaches to this new type of business. One approach would be a bank which simply buys an insurance company or an investment bank, keeps the original brands of the acquired firm, and adds the acquisition to its holding company simply to diversify its earnings. Outside the U.S. (e.g., in Japan), non-financial services companies are permitted within the holding company. In this scenario, each company still looks independent, and has its own customers, etc. In the other style, a bank would simply create its own brokerage division or insurance division and attempt to sell those products to its own existing customers, with incentives for combining all things with one company. 7 | 8 | A "commercial bank" is what is commonly referred to as simply a "bank". The term "commercial" is used to distinguish it from an "investment bank," a type of financial services entity which, instead of lending money directly to a business, helps businesses raise money from other firms in the form of bonds (debt) or stock (equity). 9 | 10 | Foreign exchange services are provided by many banks around the world. Foreign exchange services include: 11 | 12 | Fraud within the financial industry costs the UK (regulated by the FSA) an estimated £14bn a year and it is believed a further £25bn is laundered by British institutions. 13 | 14 | The financial services industry constitutes the largest group of companies in the world in terms of earnings and equity market capitalization. However it is not the largest category in terms of revenue or number of employees. It is also a slow growing and extremely fragmented industry, with the largest company (Citigroup), only having a 3% US market share. In contrast, the largest home improvement store in the US, Home Depot, has a 30% market share, and the largest coffee house Starbucks has a 32% market share. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/News#Magazines_and_E-zines.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Magazines, periodicals, glossies or serials are publications that are printed with ink on paper, generally published on a regular schedule and contain a variety of content. They are generally financed by advertising, by a purchase price, by pre-paid magazine subscriptions, or all three. At its root the word magazine refers to a collection or storage location. In the case of written publication it is a collection of written articles. 3 | 4 | Magazines can be distributed through the mail; through sales by newsstands, bookstores or other vendors; or through free distribution at selected pick-up locations. Sales models for distribution fall into three main categories. 5 | 6 | In this model, the magazine is sold to readers for a price, either on a per-issue basis or by subscription, where an annual fee or monthly price is paid and issues are sent by post to readers. Examples from the UK include Private Eye and PC Pro. 7 | 8 | This means that there is no cover price and issues are given away, for example in street dispensers, airline in-flight magazines or included with other products or publications. An example from the UK and Australia is TNT Magazine. 9 | 10 | This is the model used by "insider magazines" or industry-based publications distributed only to qualifying readers, often for free and determined by some form of survey. This latter model was widely used before the rise of the World Wide Web and is still employed by some titles. For example, in the United Kingdom, a number of computer-industry magazines, including Computer Weekly and Computing, and in finance, Waters Magazine. 11 | 12 | In the library technical sense a "magazine" paginates with each issue starting at page one. Academic or professional publications that are not peer-reviewed are generally professional magazines. 13 | 14 | The Gentleman's Magazine, first published in 1731, in London, is considered to have been the first general-interest magazine. Edward Cave, who edited The Gentleman's Magazine under the pen name "Sylvanus Urban," was the first to use the term "magazine," on the analogy of a military storehouse of varied materiel, ultimately derived from the Arabic makhazin ("storehouses") by way of the French language. Wordsmith offers this origin: "Plural of Arabic makhzan: storehouse, used figuratively as "storehouse of information" for books, and later to periodicals)." 15 | 16 | The oldest consumer magazine still in print is The Scots Magazine, which was first published in 1739, though multiple changes in ownership and gaps in publication totaling over 90 years weaken that claim. Lloyd's List was founded in Edward Lloyd’s England coffee shop in 1734; it is still published as a daily business newspaper. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Recreation#Travel.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Travel is the movement of people or objects (such as airplanes, boats, trains and other conveyances) between relatively distant geographical locations. 3 | 4 | The term "travel" originates from the Old French word travail. The term also covers all the activities performed during a travel (movement). A person who travels is spelled "traveler" in the United States, and "traveller" in the United Kingdom. 5 | 6 | Reasons for traveling include recreation, tourism or vacationing, research travel for the gathering of information, for holiday to visit people, volunteer travel for charity, migration to begin life somewhere else, religious pilgrimages and mission trips, business travel, trade, commuting, and other reasons, such as to obtain health care or fleeing war or for the enjoyment of traveling. Travel may occur by human-powered transport such as walking or bicycling, or with vehicles, such as public transport, automobiles, trains and airplanes. 7 | 8 | Motives to travel include pleasure, relaxation, discovery and exploration, getting to know other cultures and taking personal time for building interpersonal relationships. Travel may be local, regional, national (domestic) or international. In some countries, non-local internal travel may require an internal passport, while international travel typically requires a passport and visa. A trip may also be part of a round trip, which is a particular type of travel whereby a person moves from their usual residence to one or several locations and returns. 9 | 10 | It's important to take precautions to ensure travel safety. When traveling abroad, the odds favor a safe and incident-free trip, however, travelers can be subject to difficulties, crime and violence. Some safety considerations include being aware of one's surroundings, avoiding being the target of a crime, leaving copies of one's passport and itinerary information with trusted people, obtaining medical insurance valid in the country being visited and registering with one's national embassy when arriving in a foreign country. Many countries do not recognize drivers' licenses from other countries; however most countries accept international driving permits. Automobile insurance policies issued in one's own country are often invalid in foreign countries, and it's often a requirement to obtain temporary auto insurance valid in the country being visited. It's also advisable become oriented with the driving rules and regulations of destination countries. Wearing a seat belt is highly advisable for safety reasons and because many countries have penalties for violating seatbelt laws. 11 | 12 | There are three main statistics which may be used to compare the safety of various forms of travel (based on a DETR survey in October 2000): -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Arts#Awards.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | An award is something given to a person or a group of people to recognize their excellence in a certain field; a certificate of excellence. Awards are often signified by trophies, titles, certificates, commemorative plaques, medals, badges, pins, or ribbons. An award may carry a monetary prize given to the recipient; for example, the Nobel Prize for contributions to society or the Pulitzer Prize for literary achievements. An award may also simply be a public acknowledgment of excellence, without any tangible token or prize. 3 | 4 | Awards can be given by any person or institution, although the prestige of an award usually depends on the status of the awarder. Usually, awards are given by an organization of some sort, or by the office of an official within an organization or government. For instance, a special presidential citation (as given by the President of the United States) is a public announcement giving an official place of honor (e.g., President Ronald Reagan gave a special presidential citation in 1984 to the Disney Channel for its excellent children's television programming.) 5 | 6 | However there are exceptions like some quality labels, for which it is neither person nor organizations that are rewarded, but products. This is the case for the World Quality Selections organized by Monde Selection. These international awards are assigned to beverages, foods, cosmetics and diet products, which stand out for their quality. 7 | 8 | People who have won certain prestigious awards, such as the Nobel Prize, a championship title in a sport, or an Academy Award (Oscar), can have the award become their identity, thereafter being known primarily for winning the award, rather than for any other achievement or occupation. To distinctly be categorized as an 'Award', rather than some other type of ceremonial or arbitrary recognition, there should be a clear process of nominations, award criteria and appropriate judging process. Generally, recognition by a set of peers, acknowledging quality of work, rather than a 'popularity contest' is considered to be an authentic award. 9 | 10 | Mock awards, which typically recognize failures or atypical achievements, are also popular. They are usually given by people and organizations of lower or average prestige, such as comical organizations and individual writers. Popular mock awards include: 11 | 12 | One common type of award in the United States is the Employee of the Month award, where typically the recipients' names are listed in a prominent place in the business for that month. A common mock award is the wooden spoon, given to an individual or team which has come last in a competition. 13 | 14 | Some awards are given only after a fee is paid by the recipient, such as the German Design Award. 15 | 16 | An honorable mention is an award or recognition given to something that does not make it to a higher standing but is worth mentioning in an honorable way. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Shopping#Home_and_Garden.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | A home is a place of residence or refuge. When it refers to a building, it is usually a place in which an individual or a family can live and store personal property. Most modern-day households contain sanitary facilities and a means of preparing food. Animals have their own homes as well, either living in the wild or shared with humans in a domesticated environment. "Home" is also used to refer to the geographical area (whether it be a suburb, town, city or country) in which a person grew up or feels they belong, or it can refer to the native habitat of a wild animal. Sometimes, as an alternative to the definition of "home" as a physical locale ("Home is where you hang your hat"), home may be perceived to have no physical location, instead, home may relate instead to a mental or emotional state of refuge or comfort. Popular sayings along these lines are "Home is where the heart is" or "You can never go home again". 3 | 4 | There are cultures in which homes are mobile such as nomadic peoples. 5 | 6 | The word "home" can be used for various types of residential community institutions in which people can live, such as nursing, retirement homes for seniors, prisons for criminals, treatment facilities, foster homes, etc. A home is generally a place that is close to the heart of the owner, and can become a prized possession. 7 | 8 | In computer terminology, a 'home' may refer to a starting view that branches off into other tasks, e.g. a homepage or a desktop. In a full screen editor, home is often used to mean the top-leftmost character cell, or the leftmost cell on a line in a line editor. These are the initial ones used by left-to-right languages. A standard 101-key PC keyboard contains a Home key. Many home pages on the with introductory information, recent news or events, and links to subpages. "Home" may also refer to a home directory which contains the personal files of a given user of the computer system. 9 | 10 | Since it can be said that humans are generally creatures of habit, the state of a person's home has been known to physiologically influence their behavior, emotions, and overall mental health. The loss of a home (due to whatever reason, be it through accident or natural disaster, repossession, or in the case of children simply the decision to move on the part of the parents) can be a valid cause of relocation. 11 | 12 | Some people may become homesick when they leave their home over an extended period of time. Sometimes homesickness can cause a person to feel actual symptoms of illness. 13 | 14 | It has been argued that psychologically "The strongest sense of home commonly coincides geographically with a dwelling. Usually the sense of home attenuates as one moves away from that point, but it does not do so in a fixed or regular way." Furthermore, places like homes can trigger self-reflection, thoughts about who someone is or used to be or who they might become. These types of reflections also occur in places where there is a collective historical identity, such as Gettysburg or Ground Zero. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Arts#Bodyart.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Body art is art made on, with, or consisting of, the human body. The most common forms of body art are tattoos and body piercings, but other types include scarification, branding, subdermal implants, scalpelling, shaping (for example tight-lacing of corsets), full body tattoo and body painting. 3 | 4 | More extreme body art can involve mutilation or pushing the body to its physical limits. For example, one of Marina Abramović's works involved dancing until she collapsed from exhaustion, while one of Dennis Oppenheim's better-known works saw him lying in the sunlight with a book on his chest, until his skin, excluding that covered by the book, was badly sunburned. It can even consist of the arrangement and dissection of preserved bodies in an artistic fashion, as in the case of the plastinated bodies used in the travelling Body Worlds exhibition. 5 | 6 | Body art is also a sub-category of performance art, in which artists use or abuse their own body to make their particular statements. 7 | 8 | In more recent times, the body has become a subject of much broader discussion and treatment than can be reduced to body art in its common understanding. Important strategies that question the human body are: implants, body in symbiosis with the new technologies, virtual bodies, etc. Scientific research in this area, for example that by Kevin Warwick, can be considered in this artistic vein. A special case of the body art strategies is the absence of body. Some artists who performed the "absence" of body through their artworks were: Keith Arnatt, Davor Džalto, Anthony Gormley, and Andy Warhol. 9 | 10 | Vito Acconci once documented, through photos and text, his daily exercise routine of stepping on and off a chair for as long as possible over several months. Acconci also performed Following Piece, in which he followed randomly chosen New Yorkers. 11 | 12 | The Vienna Action Group was formed in 1965 by Herman Nitsch, Otto Muhl, Gunter Brus, and Rudolf Schwartzkogler. They performed several body art actions, usually involving social taboos (such as genital mutilation).. 13 | 14 | In France, body art was termed art coporel and practised by such artists as Michel Journiac and Gina Pane. 15 | 16 | In Italy in the 1970s, one of the famous artists in the movement was Ketty La Rocca. 17 | 18 | Marina Abramovic performed Rhythm 0 in 1974. In the piece, the audience was given instructions to use on Abramovic's body an array of 72 provided instruments of pain and pleasure, including knives, feathers, and a loaded pistol. Audience members cut her, pressed thorns into her belly, applied lipstick to her, and removed her clothes. The performance ended after six hours, when someone held the loaded pistol up to Abramovic's head and a scuffle broke out. 19 | 20 | The movement gradually evolved to works with more directed personal mythologies, as those by Rebecca Horn, Youri Messen-Jaschin, Javier Perez, and Jana Sterbak. 21 | 22 | Jake Lloyd Jones, a Sydney based artist, conceived the Sydney Body Art Ride, which has become an annual event. Participants are painted to form a living rainbow that rides to the Pacific Ocean and immerses itself in the waves. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Games#Puzzles.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | A puzzle is a problem or enigma that tests the ingenuity of the solver. In a basic puzzle, one is intended to put together pieces in a logical way in order to come up with the desired solution. Puzzles are often contrived as a form of entertainment, but they can also stem from serious mathematical or logistical problems — in such cases, their successful resolution can be a significant contribution to mathematical research. 3 | 4 | Solutions to puzzles may require recognizing patterns and creating a particular order. People with a high inductive reasoning aptitude may be better at solving these puzzles than others. Puzzles based on the process of inquiry and discovery to complete may be solved faster by those with good deduction skills. 5 | 6 | The first jigsaw puzzle was created around 1760, when John Spilsbury, a British engraver and mapmaker, mounted a map on a sheet of wood that he then sawed around each individual country. Spilsbury used the product to aid in teaching geography. After catching on with the wider public, this remained the primary use of jigsaw puzzles until about 1820. 7 | 8 | By the early 20th century, magazines and newspapers found that they could increase their daily subscriptions by publishing puzzle contests. Puzzles may also include letters, numbers, shapes, and riddles. 9 | 10 | A sample of notable puzzle authors includes Sam Loyd, Henry Dudeney, Boris Kordemsky and, more recently, David J. Bodycombe, Will Shortz, Lloyd King and Martin Gardner. 11 | 12 | There are organizations and events catering to puzzle enthusiasts such as Ravenchase, the International Puzzle Party, the World Puzzle Championship and the National Puzzlers' League. There are also Puzzlehunts like Maze of Games or the Rittenhouse Chronicles. 13 | 14 | The Rubik's Cube and other combination puzzles are toys based on puzzles that can be stimulating toys for kids and are a recreational activity for adults. Puzzles can be used to hide or obscure objects. A good example is a puzzle box used to hide jewelry. 15 | 16 | Games are often based on a puzzle. For example there are thousands of computer puzzle games and many letter games, word games and mathematical games which require solutions to puzzles as part of the gameplay. One of the most popular puzzle games is Tetris. 17 | 18 | A chess problem is a puzzle that uses chess pieces on a chess board. 19 | 20 | The large number of puzzles that have been created can be divided into categories, for example a maze is a type of tour puzzle. Other categories include construction puzzles, stick puzzles, tiling puzzles, transport puzzles, disentanglement puzzles, jigsaw puzzles, lock puzzles, folding puzzles, combination puzzles and mechanical puzzles. 21 | 22 | The 1989 edition of the Oxford English Dictionary dates the word puzzle (as a verb) to the end of the 16th century. That first documented use comes from a book called The Voyage of Robert Dudley...to the West Indies, 1594–95, narrated by Capt. Wyatt, by himself, and by Abram Kendall, master (published circa 1595) to describe a new type of game. 23 | 24 | Their research, based on the "chronology of the words, and still more the consideration of their sense-history, seem[s] to make it clear that the verb came first, and that the noun was its derivative." -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Society#Holidays.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | A holiday is a day designated as having special significance for which individuals, a government, or a religious group have deemed that observance is warranted. It is generally an official (more common) or unofficial observance of religious, national, or cultural significance, often accompanied by celebrations or festivities. A holiday does not necessarily exclude doing normal work: the relatively minor Jewish holiday of Chanukah has been described as a "working holiday" and those who celebrate a holiday such as Diwali may have to work a normal schedule in countries where it is not a public holiday. 3 | 4 | The word holiday derived from the notion of "Holy Day", and gradually evolved to its current form. 5 | 6 | The word holiday comes from the Old English word hāligdæg. The word originally referred only to special religious days. In modern use, it means any special day of rest or relaxation, as opposed to normal days away from work or school. 7 | 8 | Many holidays are linked to faiths and religions (see etymology above). Christian holidays are defined as part of the liturgical year, the chief ones being Easter and Christmas. The Orthodox Christian and Western-Roman Catholic patronal feast day or 'name day' are celebrated in each place's patron saint's day, according to the Calendar of saints. Jehovah's Witnesses annually observe "The Passover". In Islam, the largest holidays are Eid ul-Fitr (immediately after Ramadan) and Eid al-Adha (at the end of the Hajj). Hindus, Jains and Sikhs observe several holidays, one of the largest being Diwali (Festival of Light). Japanese holidays contain references to several different faiths and beliefs. Celtic, Norse, and Neopagan holidays follow the order of the Wheel of the Year. Some are closely linked to Swedish festivities. The Bahá'í Faith observes holidays as defined by the Bahá'í calendar. Jews have two holiday seasons: the Spring Feasts of Pesach (Passover) and Shavuot (Weeks, called Pentecost in Greek); and the Fall Feasts of Rosh Hashanah (Head of the Year), Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement), Sukkot (Tabernacles), and Shemini Atzeret (Eighth Day of Assembly). 9 | 10 | Winter in the Northern Hemisphere features many holidays that involve festivals and feasts. The Christmas and holiday season surrounds the winter solstice, Christmas and other holidays, and is celebrated by many religions and cultures. Usually, this period begins near the start of November and ends with New Year's Day. Holiday season is, somewhat, a commercial term that applies, in the US, to the period that begins with Thanksgiving and ends with New Year's Eve. Some Christian countries consider the end of the festive season to be after the feast of Epiphany. 11 | 12 | Sovereign nations and territories observe holidays based on events of significance to their history. For example, Americans celebrate Independence Day, celebrating the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. 13 | 14 | Several secular holidays are observed, such as Earth Day or, Arbor Day, or Labor Day, both internationally, and across multi-country regions, often in conjunction with organizations such as the United Nations. Many other days are marked to celebrate events or people, but are not strictly holidays as time off work is rarely given. 15 | 16 | These are holidays that are not traditionally marked on calendars. These holidays are celebrated by various groups and individuals. Some promote a cause, others recognize historical events not officially recognized, and others are "funny" holidays celebrated with humorous intent. For example, Monkey Day celebrated on December 14, International Talk Like a Pirate Day observed on September 19 and Blasphemy Day is September 30. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Shopping#Holidays.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | A holiday is a day designated as having special significance for which individuals, a government, or a religious group have deemed that observance is warranted. It is generally an official (more common) or unofficial observance of religious, national, or cultural significance, often accompanied by celebrations or festivities. A holiday does not necessarily exclude doing normal work: the relatively minor Jewish holiday of Chanukah has been described as a "working holiday" and those who celebrate a holiday such as Diwali may have to work a normal schedule in countries where it is not a public holiday. 3 | 4 | The word holiday derived from the notion of "Holy Day", and gradually evolved to its current form. 5 | 6 | The word holiday comes from the Old English word hāligdæg. The word originally referred only to special religious days. In modern use, it means any special day of rest or relaxation, as opposed to normal days away from work or school. 7 | 8 | Many holidays are linked to faiths and religions (see etymology above). Christian holidays are defined as part of the liturgical year, the chief ones being Easter and Christmas. The Orthodox Christian and Western-Roman Catholic patronal feast day or 'name day' are celebrated in each place's patron saint's day, according to the Calendar of saints. Jehovah's Witnesses annually observe "The Passover". In Islam, the largest holidays are Eid ul-Fitr (immediately after Ramadan) and Eid al-Adha (at the end of the Hajj). Hindus, Jains and Sikhs observe several holidays, one of the largest being Diwali (Festival of Light). Japanese holidays contain references to several different faiths and beliefs. Celtic, Norse, and Neopagan holidays follow the order of the Wheel of the Year. Some are closely linked to Swedish festivities. The Bahá'í Faith observes holidays as defined by the Bahá'í calendar. Jews have two holiday seasons: the Spring Feasts of Pesach (Passover) and Shavuot (Weeks, called Pentecost in Greek); and the Fall Feasts of Rosh Hashanah (Head of the Year), Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement), Sukkot (Tabernacles), and Shemini Atzeret (Eighth Day of Assembly). 9 | 10 | Winter in the Northern Hemisphere features many holidays that involve festivals and feasts. The Christmas and holiday season surrounds the winter solstice, Christmas and other holidays, and is celebrated by many religions and cultures. Usually, this period begins near the start of November and ends with New Year's Day. Holiday season is, somewhat, a commercial term that applies, in the US, to the period that begins with Thanksgiving and ends with New Year's Eve. Some Christian countries consider the end of the festive season to be after the feast of Epiphany. 11 | 12 | Sovereign nations and territories observe holidays based on events of significance to their history. For example, Americans celebrate Independence Day, celebrating the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. 13 | 14 | Several secular holidays are observed, such as Earth Day or, Arbor Day, or Labor Day, both internationally, and across multi-country regions, often in conjunction with organizations such as the United Nations. Many other days are marked to celebrate events or people, but are not strictly holidays as time off work is rarely given. 15 | 16 | These are holidays that are not traditionally marked on calendars. These holidays are celebrated by various groups and individuals. Some promote a cause, others recognize historical events not officially recognized, and others are "funny" holidays celebrated with humorous intent. For example, Monkey Day celebrated on December 14, International Talk Like a Pirate Day observed on September 19 and Blasphemy Day is September 30. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Recreation#Living_History.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Living History is the memoir of United States Senator from New York (and former First Lady and Secretary of State) Hillary Rodham Clinton, published in 2003. 3 | 4 | In December 2000, Simon & Schuster agreed to pay Clinton a reported $8 million advance for what became Living History — a near-record figure to an author for an advance at that time. Critics charged that the book deal, coming soon after her election to the U.S. Senate, but before being sworn into office, was not in adherence to the ethical standards required for members of the U.S. Senate. However, in February 2001, the Senate Ethics Committee gave Clinton approval for the deal. 5 | 6 | Clinton reportedly used three ghostwriters for Living History, veteran ghostwriter Maryanne Vollers, speechwriter Alison Muscatine, and researcher Ruby Shamir. Muscatine later related how the three would meet at Clinton's house early in the morning before she left for the Capitol building, do a day's worth of writing, and then meet again after midnight at Clinton's for the senator to edit the work until three o'clock in the morning. Clinton's acknowledgment section stated: "This book may not have taken a village to write, but it certainly took a superb team ... The smartest decision I made was to ask Lissa Muscatine, Maryanne Vollers and Ruby Shamir to spend two years of their lives working with me. Lissa [was] responsible for many of the words in my speeches as First Lady and in this book ... Maryanne [has] the rare gift of understanding how to help another's voice emerge ... Ruby [had the job of] amassing, reviewing and synthesizing millions of words written about me." However, the three women did not receive co-writing credit on the book's cover. This is not unusual for political autobiographies, but in the same period some other political figures were given co-writing credit, as for instance fellow Senator John Edwards gave to writer John Auchard on his book Four Trials and fellow Senator John McCain gave to administrative assistant Mark Salter on his books Faith of My Fathers, Worth the Fighting For, Why Courage Matters, and Character Is Destiny. 7 | 8 | Reviews of Living History were mixed, with a typical evaluation commending the chapters describing her early life, decrying the overly lengthy later treatments of relatively mundane events as First Lady, and criticizing the lack of candor in the sections covering controversial episodes, including those surrounding her husband and the Lewinsky scandal. Observers later noted the difference in how Clinton portrayed her upbringing and Carl Bernstein's biographical take on her demanding father. 9 | 10 | The book sold more than one million copies in the first month following publication; its sales during its first week of availability set a record for a non-fiction book. The success of the book surprised many in the publishing industry, who thought Simon & Schuster had overpaid for the work. It also surprised pundits who had doubted her selling power, including CNN's Tucker Carlson, who had said, "If they sell a million copies of this book, I'll eat my shoes and my tie. I will." (Once past the million mark, Clinton appeared on Carlson's show to present him with a shoe-shaped chocolate cake. ) Clinton's energetic promotion of the book, which included signing an estimated 20,000 copies (causing her to require ice and wrist support treatments), was credited for part of the success. By 2007, she had earned over $10 million from the book. 11 | 12 | Clinton's audio recording of Living History earned her a Grammy nomination in the Best Spoken Word Album category in 2003. 13 | 14 | A paperback edition was released in April 2004 with an additional short afterword in which Clinton described her experiences in doing book signing events. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/News#Analysis_and_Opinion.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | In general, an opinion is a subjective belief, and is the result of emotion or interpretation of facts. An opinion may be supported by an argument, although people may draw opposing opinions from the same set of facts. Opinions rarely change without new arguments being presented. It can be reasoned that one opinion is better supported by the facts than another by analysing the supporting arguments. In casual use, the term opinion may be the result of a person's perspective, understanding, particular feelings, beliefs, and desires. It may refer to unsubstantiated information, in contrast to knowledge and fact-based beliefs. 3 | 4 | Collective or professional opinions are defined as meeting a higher standard to substantiate the opinion. (see below) 5 | 6 | In economics, other social sciences and philosophy, analysis based on opinion is referred to as normative analysis (what ought to be), as opposed to positive analysis, which is based on scientific observation (what materially is or is experimentally demonstrable). 7 | 8 | Historically, the distinction of demonstrated knowledge and opinion was articulated by Ancient Greek philosophers. Today, Plato's analogy of the divided line is a well-known illustration of the distinction between knowledge and opinion, or knowledge and belief, in customary terminology of contemporary philosophy. Opinions can be persuasive, but only the assertions they are based on can be said to be true or false. 9 | 10 | The public opinion is the aggregate of individual attitudes or beliefs held by the representative sample of a population, while consumer opinion is the similar aggregate collected as part of marketing research, and group opinion is collected from group of subjects, such as members of some sociological strata, profession, veterans, childhood trauma survivors etc. subjected to a scientific studies. 11 | 12 | A "scientific opinion" is the general opinion of a professional scientific body gained through extensive research with a reproducible, unbiased conclusion soundly based upon the facts derived from the experiment. A scientific opinion which represents the formally-agreed consensus of a scientific body or establishment, often takes the form of a published position paper citing the research producing the scientific evidence upon which the opinion is based. "The scientific opinion" (or scientific consensus) can be compared to "the public opinion" and generally refers to the collection of the opinions of many different scientific organizations and entities and individual scientists in the relevant field. 13 | 14 | A "legal opinion" or "closing opinion" is a type of professional opinion, usually contained in a formal legal-opinion letter, given by an attorney to a client or a third party. Most legal opinions are given in connection with business transactions. The opinion expresses the attorney's professional judgment regarding the legal matters addressed. A legal opinion is not a guarantee that a court will reach any particular result. However, a mistaken or incomplete legal opinion may be grounds for a professional malpractice claim against the attorney, pursuant to which the attorney may be required to pay the claimant damages incurred as a result of relying on the faulty opinion. 15 | 16 | A "judicial opinion" or "opinion of the court" is an opinion of a judge or group of judges that accompanies and explains an order or ruling in a controversy before the court, laying out the rationale and legal principles the court relied on in reaching its decision. Judges in the United States are usually required to provide a well-reasoned basis for their decisions and the contents of their judicial opinions may contain the grounds for appealing and reversing of their decision by a higher court. 17 | 18 | An "editorial opinion" is the stated opinion of a newspaper or of its publisher, as conveyed on the editorial page. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Arts#Crafts.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | A craft is a profession that requires some particular kind of skilled work. In a historical sense, particularly as pertinent to the Middle Ages and earlier, the term is usually applied to people occupied in small-scale production of goods. The traditional terms craftsman and craftswoman are nowadays often replaced by artisan and rarely by craftsperson (craftspeople). 3 | 4 | Historically, craftsmen tended to concentrate in urban centers and formed guilds. The skill required by their professions and the need to be permanently involved in the exchange of goods also demanded a generally higher level of education, and craftsmen were usually in a more privileged position than the peasantry in societal hierarchy. The households of craftsmen were not as self-sufficient as those of people engaged in agricultural work and therefore had to rely on the exchange of goods. 5 | 6 | Once an apprentice of a craft had finished his apprenticeship, he would become a journeyman searching for a place to set up his own shop and make a living. After he set up his own shop, he could then call himself a master of his craft. 7 | 8 | This system of a stepwise approach to mastery of a craft, which includes the obtainment of a certain amount of education and the learning of skills, has survived in some countries of the world until today. But crafts have undergone deep structural changes during and since the era of the Industrial Revolution. The mass production of goods by large-scale industry has limited crafts to market segments in which industry's modes of functioning or its mass-produced goods would not or cannot satisfy the preferences of potential buyers. Moreover, as an outcome of these changes, craftspeople today increasingly make use of semi-finished components or materials and adapt these to their customers' requirements or demands and, if necessary, to the environments of their customers. They thus participate in a certain division of labour between industry and craft. 9 | 10 | In English, to describe something as a craft is to describe it as lying somewhere between an art (which relies on talent and technique) and a science (which relies on knowledge). In this sense, the English word craft is roughly equivalent to the ancient Greek term techne. Folk art follows craft traditions, in contrast to fine art or "high art". 11 | 12 | Handicraft is the "traditional" main sector of the crafts, it is a type of work where useful and decorative devices are made completely by hand or by using only simple tools. Usually the term is applied to traditional means of making goods. The individual artisanship of the items is a paramount criterion, such items often have cultural and/or religious significance. Items made by mass production or machines are not handicraft goods. 13 | 14 | The term crafts is often used to describe the family of artistic practices within the family decorative arts that traditionally are defined by their relationship to functional or utilitarian products (such as sculptural forms in the vessel tradition) or by their use of such natural media as wood, clay, ceramics, glass, textiles, and metal. 15 | 16 | Crafts practiced by independent artists working alone or in small groups are often referred to as studio craft. Studio craft includes studio pottery, metal work, weaving, wood turning, paper and other forms of wood working, glass blowing, and glass art. 17 | 18 | A craft fair is an organized event to display crafts by a number of exhibitors. There are craft shops where such goods are sold and craft communities, such as Craftster, where expertise is shared. 19 | 20 | A tradesman is a skilled manual worker in a particular trade or craft. Economically and socially, a tradesman's status is considered between a laborer and a professional, with a high degree of both practical and theoretical knowledge of their trade. In cultures where professional careers are highly prized there can be a shortage of skilled manual workers, leading to lucrative niche markets in the trades. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Shopping#Crafts.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | A craft is a profession that requires some particular kind of skilled work. In a historical sense, particularly as pertinent to the Middle Ages and earlier, the term is usually applied to people occupied in small-scale production of goods. The traditional terms craftsman and craftswoman are nowadays often replaced by artisan and rarely by craftsperson (craftspeople). 3 | 4 | Historically, craftsmen tended to concentrate in urban centers and formed guilds. The skill required by their professions and the need to be permanently involved in the exchange of goods also demanded a generally higher level of education, and craftsmen were usually in a more privileged position than the peasantry in societal hierarchy. The households of craftsmen were not as self-sufficient as those of people engaged in agricultural work and therefore had to rely on the exchange of goods. 5 | 6 | Once an apprentice of a craft had finished his apprenticeship, he would become a journeyman searching for a place to set up his own shop and make a living. After he set up his own shop, he could then call himself a master of his craft. 7 | 8 | This system of a stepwise approach to mastery of a craft, which includes the obtainment of a certain amount of education and the learning of skills, has survived in some countries of the world until today. But crafts have undergone deep structural changes during and since the era of the Industrial Revolution. The mass production of goods by large-scale industry has limited crafts to market segments in which industry's modes of functioning or its mass-produced goods would not or cannot satisfy the preferences of potential buyers. Moreover, as an outcome of these changes, craftspeople today increasingly make use of semi-finished components or materials and adapt these to their customers' requirements or demands and, if necessary, to the environments of their customers. They thus participate in a certain division of labour between industry and craft. 9 | 10 | In English, to describe something as a craft is to describe it as lying somewhere between an art (which relies on talent and technique) and a science (which relies on knowledge). In this sense, the English word craft is roughly equivalent to the ancient Greek term techne. Folk art follows craft traditions, in contrast to fine art or "high art". 11 | 12 | Handicraft is the "traditional" main sector of the crafts, it is a type of work where useful and decorative devices are made completely by hand or by using only simple tools. Usually the term is applied to traditional means of making goods. The individual artisanship of the items is a paramount criterion, such items often have cultural and/or religious significance. Items made by mass production or machines are not handicraft goods. 13 | 14 | The term crafts is often used to describe the family of artistic practices within the family decorative arts that traditionally are defined by their relationship to functional or utilitarian products (such as sculptural forms in the vessel tradition) or by their use of such natural media as wood, clay, ceramics, glass, textiles, and metal. 15 | 16 | Crafts practiced by independent artists working alone or in small groups are often referred to as studio craft. Studio craft includes studio pottery, metal work, weaving, wood turning, paper and other forms of wood working, glass blowing, and glass art. 17 | 18 | A craft fair is an organized event to display crafts by a number of exhibitors. There are craft shops where such goods are sold and craft communities, such as Craftster, where expertise is shared. 19 | 20 | A tradesman is a skilled manual worker in a particular trade or craft. Economically and socially, a tradesman's status is considered between a laborer and a professional, with a high degree of both practical and theoretical knowledge of their trade. In cultures where professional careers are highly prized there can be a shortage of skilled manual workers, leading to lucrative niche markets in the trades. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /tagger_trainer.py: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | #!/usr/bin/env python 2 | # encoding: utf-8 3 | 4 | """ 5 | File: tagger_trainer.py 6 | Author: Yasser Ebrahim 7 | Date: NOV 2012 8 | 9 | This script takes an input file containing a taxonomy of categories of maximum depth 2 (categories and subcategories), then it tries to find corresponding wikipedia pages for each cateogry/subcategory by traversing English wikipedia urls whose suffix is the category name. It uses Goose, a python library that extracts article body text from a given url. You can read more about Goose here: https://github.com/jiminoc/goose/wiki 10 | 11 | The script creates a file for each category/subcategory insdie the directory "crawled." In the file is pure text extracted from the url, which can later be used to train a tagger. A simple urls_file is included called topics.txt, obtained by reformatting the 'categories.txt' file on http://rdf.dmoz.org/rdf/ to get only the first two levels. 12 | 13 | Usage: 14 | python tagger_trainer.py urls_file.txt 15 | 16 | ***Plese note that this requires Goose to be installed before running. 17 | """ 18 | 19 | import os 20 | import sys 21 | import codecs 22 | import httplib 23 | import urlparse 24 | import unicodedata 25 | from goose import Goose 26 | from optparse import OptionParser 27 | 28 | # code is courtesy of Jabba Laci 29 | # at https://pythonadventures.wordpress.com/2010/10/17/check-if-url-exists/ 30 | # -------------------------------------- 31 | 32 | 33 | def get_server_status_code(url): 34 | """ 35 | Download just the header of a URL and 36 | return the server's status code. 37 | """ 38 | # http://stackoverflow.com/questions/1140661 39 | host, path = urlparse.urlparse(url)[1:3] # elems [1] and [2] 40 | try: 41 | conn = httplib.HTTPConnection(host) 42 | conn.request('HEAD', path) 43 | return conn.getresponse().status 44 | except StandardError: 45 | return None 46 | 47 | 48 | def check_url(url): 49 | """ 50 | Check if a URL exists without downloading the whole file. 51 | We only check the URL header. 52 | """ 53 | # see also http://stackoverflow.com/questions/2924422 54 | good_codes = [httplib.OK, httplib.FOUND, httplib.MOVED_PERMANENTLY] 55 | return get_server_status_code(url) in good_codes 56 | 57 | # -------------------------------------- 58 | # end of Jabba's code 59 | 60 | 61 | def remove_diacritic(input): 62 | input = unicode(input, 'ISO-8859-1') 63 | return unicodedata.normalize('NFKD', input).encode('ASCII', 'ignore') 64 | 65 | # __main__ execution 66 | 67 | parser = OptionParser(usage='usage: %prog [options] urls_file') 68 | options, args = parser.parse_args() 69 | 70 | if len(args) < 1: 71 | print(parser.print_help()) 72 | quit() 73 | 74 | f = open(sys.argv[1]) 75 | files = f.read().splitlines() 76 | 77 | malwriter = codecs.open('not_found.txt', encoding='utf-8', mode='w+') 78 | 79 | g = Goose() 80 | for f in files: 81 | # only take the name of the subcategory 82 | p = f.split('/')[-1] 83 | # if the category is something like "Religion_and_Spirituality", split 84 | p = p.split('_and_')[0] 85 | # wikipedia uses single forms in urls 86 | if p[-1] == 's': 87 | p = p[:-1] 88 | # avoid problems in file names 89 | f = f.replace('/', '#') 90 | # avoid problems with accented characters 91 | f = remove_diacritic(f) 92 | # if filed already crawled, skip 93 | if os.path.exists('crawled/' + f + '.txt'): 94 | continue 95 | 96 | url = 'http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/' + p 97 | if not check_url(url): 98 | p = remove_diacritic(p) 99 | malwriter.write(p + '\n') 100 | continue 101 | 102 | print('crawing: ' + url) 103 | article = g.extract(url=url) 104 | writer = codecs.open('crawled/' + f + '.txt', encoding='utf-8', mode='w+') 105 | writer.write(article.title + '\n') 106 | writer.write(article.cleaned_text) 107 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Games#Roleplaying.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Role-playing refers to the changing of one's behaviour to assume a role, either unconsciously to fill a social role, or consciously to act out an adopted role. While the Oxford English Dictionary offers a definition of role-playing as "the changing of one's behaviour to fulfill a social role", in the field of psychology, the term is used more loosely in four senses: 3 | 4 | Many children participate in a form of role-playing known as make believe, wherein they adopt certain roles such as doctor and act out those roles in character. Sometimes make believe adopts an oppositional nature, resulting in games such as cops and robbers. 5 | 6 | Historical re-enactment has been practised by adults for millennia. The ancient Romans, Han Chinese, and medieval Europeans all enjoyed occasionally organising events in which everyone pretended to be from an earlier age, and entertainment appears to have been the primary purpose of these activities. Within the 20th century historical re-enactment has often been pursued as a hobby. 7 | 8 | Improvisational theatre dates back to the Commedia dell'Arte tradition of the 16th century. Modern improvisational theatre began in the classroom with the "theatre games" of Viola Spolin and Keith Johnstone in the 1950s. Viola Spolin, who was one of the founders the famous comedy troupe Second City, insisted that her exercises were games, and that they involved role-playing as early as 1946. She accurately judged role-playing in the theatre as rehearsal and actor training, or the playing of the role of actor versus theatre roles, but many now use her games for fun in their own right. 9 | 10 | A role-playing game is a game in which the participants assume the roles of characters and collaboratively create stories. Participants determine the actions of their characters based on their characterisation, and the actions succeed or fail according to a formal system of rules and guidelines. Within the rules, they may improvise freely; their choices shape the direction and outcome of the games. 11 | 12 | Role-playing can also be done online in the form of group story creation, involving anywhere from two to several hundred people, utilizing public forums, private message boards, mailing lists, chatrooms, and instant-messaging chat clients (e.g., MSN, Yahoo!, ICQ) to build worlds and characters that may last a few hours, or several years. Message boards such as ProBoards and InvisionFree are popularly used for role-playing. Often on forum-based roleplays, rules, and standards are set up, such as a minimum word count, character applications, and "plotting" boards to increase complexity and depth of story. 13 | 14 | There are different genres of which one can choose while role-playing, including, but not limited to, fantasy, modern, medieval, steam punk, and historical. Books, movies, or games can be, and often are, used as a basis for role-plays (which in such cases may be deemed "collaborative fan-fiction"), with players either assuming the roles of established canon characters or using those the players themselves create ("Original Characters") to replace—or exist along side—characters from the book, movie, or game, playing through well-trodden plots as alternative characters, or expanding upon the setting and story outside of its established canon. Role-playing takes years to master, but it does not take too long to learn the basics. 15 | 16 | Role-playing may also refer to role training where people rehearse situations in preparation for a future performance and to improve their abilities within a role. The most common examples are occupational training role-plays, educational role-play exercises, and certain military wargames. 17 | 18 | One of the first uses of computers was to simulate reality around its participants in order to role-play the flying of aircraft. As early as the 1940s, flight simulators used computers to solve the equations of flight and train future pilots. After World War II the army began full time role-playing simulations with soldiers using computers both within full scale training exercises and for training in numerous specific tasks under wartime conditions. Examples include weapon firing, vehicle simulators, and control station mock-ups. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Reference#Quotations.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | A quotation or quote is the repetition of one expression as part of another one, particularly when the quoted expression is well-known or explicitly attributed by citation to its original source, and it is indicated by (punctuated with) quotation marks. 3 | 4 | A quotation can also refer to the repeated use of units of any other form of expression, especially parts of artistic works: elements of a painting, scenes from a movie or sections from a musical composition. 5 | 6 | Quotations are used for a variety of reasons: to illuminate the meaning or to support the arguments of the work in which it is being quoted, to provide direct information about the work being quoted(whether in order to discuss it, positively or negatively), to pay homage to the original work or author, to make the user of the quotation seem well-read, and/or to comply with copyright law. Quotations are also commonly printed as a means of inspiration and to invoke philosophical thoughts from the reader. 7 | 8 | Famous quotations are frequently collected in books that are sometimes called quotation dictionaries or treasuries. Of these, Bartlett's Familiar Quotations, The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations, The Yale Book of Quotations and The MacMillan Book of Proverbs, Maxims, and Famous Phrases are considered among the most reliable and comprehensive sources. Diaries and calendars often include quotations for entertainment or inspirational purposes, and small, dedicated sections in newspapers and weekly magazines—with recent quotations by leading personalities on current topics—have also become commonplace. 9 | 10 | Many quotations are routinely incorrect or attributed to the wrong authors, and quotations from obscure or unknown writers are often attributed to far more famous writers. Examples of this are Winston Churchill, to whom many political quotations of uncertain origin are attributed, and Oscar Wilde, to whom anonymous humorous quotes are sometimes attributed. 11 | 12 | Deliberate misquotation is also common, though this often goes unnoticed, usually because the misquotation is better known or because the misquotation better fits a situation. For example, the Star Trek catchphrase "Beam me up, Scotty" did not appear in that form in the original series—likewise, the famous Dirty Harry quotation "Are you feeling lucky, punk?" is actually a rewording of the original dialogue: "You've got to ask yourself one question: 'Do I feel lucky?' Well, do ya punk?" 13 | 14 | Chiefly a text medium in the beginning, the World Wide Web gave rise to any number of personal quotation collections that continue to flourish, even though very few of them seem to facilitate accurate information or correct citation. On June 27, 2003, a sister project of the Wikimedia Foundation called Wikiquote was created as a free online encyclopedia of quotations in every language and it is now the biggest single quotation collection in the world. 15 | 16 | The increase of written means of informal communication brought about by the Internet has produced the practice of using quotations as personal flags, as in one's own signature block. This is most commonly seen in email messages and Usenet posts, while it is almost never seen in blog posts. Quotations are also popular as a user's personal message, a line under the user's nickname in some Instant Messaging clients (and here they often go uncited). In all these cases, quotations are usually included to give a glimpse of the user's personality, to make a statement of their beliefs, or to spread views and ideas. 17 | 18 | The sheer bulk of online quotations, combined with more efficient search engines, has effectively made the Internet the world's quotation storehouse, encompassing an unprecedented number of easily obtainable quotations. Though matters of accuracy still remain, features such as Amazon.com's Search Inside the Book and Google Book Search may serve to alleviate such concerns. 19 | 20 | Section 30(1) of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (apparently in transposition of Article 5(3)(d) of the EU Copyright Directive on "quotations") allows "fair dealing" with a copyright work for the purpose of criticism or review, provided that it is accompanied by a sufficient acknowledgement. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Shopping#Antiques_and_Collectibles.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | A collectable or collectible (aka collector's item) is any object regarded as being of value or interest to a collector (not necessarily monetarily valuable or antique). There are numerous types of collectables and terms to denote those types. An antique is a collectable that is old. A curio is a small, usually fascinating or unusual item sought after by collectors. A "manufactured" collectable is an item made specifically for people to collect. 3 | 4 | Although "collectable" is the spelling listed first for the adjective by the Oxford English Dictionary and is standard spelling in British English, the dictionary observes that the "-ible" form is also valid and this has come to be the common spelling in the United States. 5 | 6 | A "manufactured" collectable (often referred to as a contemporary collectable) is an item made specifically for people to collect. The terms special edition, limited edition and variants such as deluxe edition, collector's edition and others, fall under the category of manufactured collectable and are used as a marketing incentive for various kinds of products, originally published products related to the arts, such as books, prints or recorded music and films, but now including cars, fine wine and other collectables. A limited edition is restricted in the number of copies produced, although in fact the number may be very low or very high. A special edition implies there is extra material of some kind included. Some companies that produce manufactured collectables are members of The Gift and Collectibles Guild. 7 | 8 | Manufacturers and retailers have used collectables in a number of ways to increase sales. One use is in the form of licensed collectables based on intellectual properties, such as images, characters and logos from literature, music, movies, radio, television, and video games. A large subsection of licensing includes advertising, brandname, and character collectibles. Another use of collectables in retail is in the form of prizes (items of nominal value packaged with or included in the price of a retail product at no additional cost) and premiums (items that can be "purchased" by redeeming coupons, boxtops, or proofs of purchase from the product along with a small fee to cover shipping and handling). Also, collectables have played an important role in tourism, in the form of souvenirs. Another important field of collecting that is also big business is memorabilia, which includes collectables related to a person, organization, event or media, including t-shirts, posters, and numerous other collectables marketed to fans; but also includes ephemera from historical, media, or entertainment events, items that were meant to be thrown away but were saved by fans and accumulated by collectors. 9 | 10 | Collectables are items of limited supply that are sought for a variety of reasons including a possible increase in value. In a financial sense, collectables can be viewed as a hedge against inflation. Over time, their value can also increase as they become more rare due to loss, damage or destruction. One drawback to investing in collectables is the potential lack of liquidity, particularly for very obscure items. 11 | 12 | The earliest collectables were included as incentives with other products, such as cigarette cards in packs of cigarettes. Popular items developed a secondary market and sometimes became the subject of "collectable crazes". Eventually many collectable items came to be sold separately, instead of being used as marketing tools to increase the appeal of other products. 13 | 14 | To encourage collecting, manufacturers often create an entire series of a given collectable, with each item differentiated in some fashion. Examples include sports cards depicting individual players, or different designs of Beanie Babies. Enthusiasts will often try to assemble a complete set of the available variations. 15 | 16 | Early versions of a product, manufactured in smaller quantities before its popularity as a collectable developed, sometimes command exorbitant premiums on the secondary market. Dolls and other toys made during an adult collector's childhood can command such premiums. Unless extremely rare or made as a one-of-a-kind, in a mature market, collectables rarely prove to be a spectacular investment. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Recreation#Antiques.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | An antique (Latin: antiquus; old) is an old collectable item. It is collected or desirable because of its age (see definition), beauty, rarity, condition, utility, personal emotional connection, and/or other unique features. It is an object that represents a previous era or time period in human society. It is common practice to define "antique", as applying to objects at least 100 years old. Collectibles are, generally speaking, the possible antiques of the future and generally less than 100 years old. 3 | 4 | The only real law concerning the definition of the word antique comes from the US customs office, that considers antique as anything 100 years old. 5 | 6 | Antiques are usually objects which show some degree of craftsmanship, or a certain attention to design such as a desk or an early automobile. They are most often bought at antique shops, or passed down as an estate. Some valuable antiques can be bought from antique dealers and auction services or purchased online through websites and online auctions. Antique dealers are often members of national trade associations, many of which belong to CINOA, a confederation of art and antique associations across 21 countries, representing 5000 dealers. 7 | 8 | The term "antique" is pejorative in some instances to imply that something is out of date. 9 | 10 | The definition of antique varies from source to source, product to product, and year to year. 11 | 12 | The only known exception to the "100 year rule" would be cars. Since the definition of the term antique requires an item to be at least 100 years old and the item in question must be in its original and unaltered condition, most cars clearly would not meet these terms, as yet. So, cars have generally been considered to be 'antique' if they are roughly 75 years old, or more (some cars can be registered as "classic" when 25 years old, such as muscle cars and luxury vehicles such as Rolls-Royce and Bentley). Furthermore, this is not a universally accepted concern, but rather a consideration made almost strictly by car collectors and enthusiasts. 13 | 14 | In the United States, the 1930 Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act defined an antique as "works of art (except rugs and carpets made after the year 1700), collections in illustration of the progress of the arts, works in bronze, marble, terra cotta, parian, pottery or porcelain, artistic antiquities and objects of ornamental character or educational value which shall have been produced prior to the year 1830." 1830 was roughly the beginning of mass production in the US and 100 years older than 1930 Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act. 15 | 16 | These definitions allow people to make a distinction between genuine antique pieces, vintage items, and collectible objects. 17 | 18 | The alternative term antiquities commonly refers to the remains of ancient art and everyday items from antiquity, which themselves are often archaeological artifacts. 19 | 20 | The term antiquarian refers to a person interested in antiquities, or things of the past. 21 | 22 | "Antiquing" is the act of shopping, identifying, negotiating, or bargaining for antiques. Items can be bought for personal use, gifts, and in the case of brokers and dealers, profit. Antiquing is performed at garage sales, estate sales, resort towns, antiques districts, collectives, and international auction houses. 23 | 24 | Note that the word "antiquing" may also refer to the art of making an object appear antique through distressing or applying an antique looking paint application. 25 | 26 | The collecting of antique furniture is a particularly popular area of antiques due to the practical characteristics of these antiques, as well as the value. Many collectors use the pieces in their homes, and also care for them with the hope that they will hold their value or possibly appreciate in value over time. This is in contrast to buying new furniture which will depreciate in value from the moment it is purchased. Antique furniture includes dining tables, chairs, bureaus, chests etc. The most common woods are mahogany, oak, pine, walnut and rosewood. Chinese antique furniture is often made with elm, a wood common to many regions in Asia. Each wood has its own distinctive grain and color. Many modern pieces of furniture often use laminate or wood veneer to cheaply achieve the same effect. There are a number of different styles of antique furniture depending on when and where it was made. Some examples of stylistic periods are; Arts & Crafts, Georgian, Regency, American Pastoral, and Victorian. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Computers#Companies.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | A company is a business organization. It is an association or collection of individual real persons and/or other companies, who each provide some form of capital. This group has a common purpose or focus and an aim of gaining profits. This collection, group or association of persons can be made to exist in law and then a company is itself considered a "legal person". The name company arose because, at least originally, it represented or was owned by more than one real or legal person. 3 | 4 | In the United States, a company may be a "corporation, partnership, association, joint-stock company, trust, fund, or organized group of persons, whether incorporated or not, and (in an official capacity) any receiver, trustee in bankruptcy, or similar official, or liquidating agent, for any of the foregoing." In the US, a company is not necessarily a corporation. 5 | 6 | In English law and in the Commonwealth realms a company is a body corporate or corporation company registered under the Companies Acts or similar legislation. It does not include a partnership or any other unincorporated group of persons, although such an entity may be loosely described as a company. 7 | 8 | A company can be defined as an "artificial person", invisible, intangible, created by or under Law, with a discrete legal entity, perpetual succession and a common seal. It is not affected by the death, insanity or insolvency of an individual member. 9 | 10 | The English word has its origins in the Old French military term compaignie (first recorded in 1150), meaning a "body of soldiers", originally taken from the Late Latin word companio "companion, one who eats bread with you", first attested in the Lex Salica as a calque of the Germanic expression *gahlaibo (literally, "with bread"), related to Old High German galeipo "companion" and Gothic gahlaiba "messmate". By 1303, the word referred to trade guilds. Usage of company to mean "business association" was first recorded in 1553 and the abbreviation "co." dates from 1769. (The equivalent French abbreviation is "cie".) 11 | 12 | According to one source, "it may be formed by Act of Parliament, by Royal Charter, or by registration under company law (referred to as a limited liability or joint-stock company)." In the United Kingdom, the main regulating laws are the Companies Act 1985 and the Companies Act 2006. Reportedly, "a company registered under this Act has limited liability: its owners (the shareholders) have no financial liability in the event of winding up the affairs of the company, but they might lose the money already invested in it". In the USA, companies are registered in a particular state—Delaware being especially favoured—and become Incorporated (Inc). 13 | 14 | In North America, two of the earliest companies were The London Company (also called the Charter of the Virginia Company of London)—an English joint stock company established by royal charter by James I of England on April 10, 1606 with the purpose of establishing colonial settlements in North America—and Plymouth Company that was granted an identical charter as part of the Virginia Company. The London Company was responsible for establishing the Jamestown Settlement, the first permanent English settlement in the present United States in 1607, and in the process of sending additional supplies, inadvertently settled the Somers Isles, alias Bermuda, the oldest-remaining English colony, in 1609. 15 | 16 | There are various types of company that can be formed in different jurisdictions, but the most common forms of company (generally formed by registration under applicable companies legislation) are: 17 | 18 | Less common types of companies are: 19 | 20 | Note that "Ltd after the company's name signifies limited company, and PLC (public limited company) indicates that its shares are widely held." 21 | 22 | In legal parlance, the owners of a company are normally referred to as the "members". In a company limited or unlimited by shares (formed or incorporated with a share capital), this will be the shareholders. In a company limited by guarantee, this will be the guarantors. Some offshore jurisdictions have created special forms of offshore company in a bid to attract business for their jurisdictions. Examples include "segregated portfolio companies" and restricted purpose companies. 23 | 24 | There are however, many, many sub-categories of types of company that can be formed in various jurisdictions in the world. 25 | 26 | Companies are also sometimes distinguished for legal and regulatory purposes between public companies and private companies. Public companies are companies whose shares can be publicly traded, often (although not always) on a regulated stock exchange. Private companies do not have publicly traded shares, and often contain restrictions on transfers of shares. In some jurisdictions, private companies have maximum numbers of shareholders. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Business#Automotive.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | The automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells motor vehicles, towed vehicles, motorcycles and mopeds as defined in ISO 3833, and is one of the world's most important economic sectors by revenue. 3 | 4 | The term automotive industry usually does not include industries dedicated to automobiles after delivery to the customer, such as repair shops and motor fuel filling stations. 5 | 6 | The term automotive was created from Greek «autos» (self), and Latin «motivus» (of motion) origins to represent any form of self powered vehicle. This term was proposed by SAE member Elmer Sperry and SAE changes acronym from «Society of Automobile Engineers» to «Society of Automotive Engineers» in February 1917. 7 | 8 | The first practical automobile with a petrol engine was built by Karl Benz in 1885 in Mannheim, Germany. Benz was granted a patent for his automobile on 29 January 1886, and began the first production of automobiles in 1888, after Bertha Benz, his wife, had proved with the first long-distance trip in August 1888 (104 km (65 mi) from Mannheim to Pforzheim and back) that the horseless coach was absolutely suitable for daily use. Since 2008 a Bertha Benz Memorial Route commemorates this event. 9 | 10 | Soon after, in 1889, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Stuttgart designed a vehicle from scratch to be an automobile, rather than a horse-drawn carriage fitted with an engine. They also are usually credited as inventors of the first motorcycle, the Daimler Reitwagen, in 1885, but Italy's Enrico Bernardi, of the University of Padua, in 1882, patented a 0.024 horsepower (17.9 W) 122 cc (7.4 cu in) one-cylinder petrol motor, fitting it into his son's tricycle, making it at least a candidate for the first automobile, and first motorcycle. Bernardi enlarged the tricycle in 1892 to carry two adults. 11 | 12 | For many decades, the U.S.A. led the world in total automobile production. In 1929 before the Great Depression, the world had 32,028,500 automobiles in use, and the US automobile industry produced over 90% of them. At that time the U.S. had one car per 4.87 persons. After WWII the U.S. issued 3/4 of world's auto production. In 1980 the U.S. was overtaken by Japan and became world's leader again in 1994. In 2006, Japan narrowly passed the U.S. in production and held this rank until 2009, when China took the top spot with 13.8 million units. By producing 18.4 million units in 2011, China produced more than twice the number of second place the U.S. with 8.7 million units, with in Japan third place with 8.4 million units. 13 | 14 | Today’s vehicles are graded on stricter and more precise parameters than ever before from weight to safety to durability and anywhere and everywhere in between. New materials have brought out new techniques for construction and vehicle design. The introduction of plastics has advanced the technology used for making newer vehicles. New plastics technologies allow manufactures to answer to the call for advancements. Plastics can be used in various technologies on vehicles for structural safety to visual appearance. These new plastic innovations allow new technologies to be used in vehicles for safety to comfort purposes. Plastics also allow for cost effective changes to be made to newer vehicle while still maintaining high safety and comfort requirements of the industry. These advancements in plastic material usage in modern vehicles are the footholds for the future of the automotive industry. 15 | 16 | Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007, consuming over 260 billion US gallons (980,000,000 m ) of gasoline and diesel fuel yearly. The automobile is a primary mode of transportation for many developed economies. The Detroit branch of Boston Consulting Group predicts that, by 2014, one-third of world demand will be in the four BRIC markets (Brazil, Russia, India and China). Other potentially powerful automotive markets are Iran and Indonesia. Emerging auto markets already buy more cars than established markets. According to a J.D. Power study, emerging markets accounted for 51 percent of the global light-vehicle sales in 2010. The study expects this trend to accelerate. 17 | 18 | It is common for automobile manufacturers to hold stakes in other automobile manufacturers. These ownerships can be explored under the detail for the individual companies. 19 | 20 | The table below shows the world's largest motor vehicle manufacturing groups, along with the marques produced by each one. The table is ranked by 2011 end of year production figures from the International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers (OICA) for the parent group, and then alphabetically by marque. Joint ventures are not reflected in this table. Production figures of joint ventures are typically included in OICA rankings, which can become a source of controversy. 21 | 22 | Quantifying the total production of a manufacturer, from their start-up, is a difficult task, because of frequent company ownership changes. However some producers, and independent sources, provide some valuable statistics: 23 | 24 | There are many automobile manufacturers other than the major global companies. They are mostly regional or operating in niche markets. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Science#Earth_Sciences.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth sciences) is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. The formal discipline of Earth sciences may include the study of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, oceans and biosphere, as well as the solid earth. Typically Earth scientists will use tools from physics, chemistry, biology, chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth system works, and how it evolved to its current state. 3 | 4 | The following fields of science are generally categorized within the geosciences: 5 | 6 | Plate tectonics, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in terms of energy transformations in the Earth's crust. 7 | 8 | Beneath the Earth's crust lies the mantle which is heated by the radioactive decay of heavy elements. The mantle is not quite solid and consists of magma which is in a state of semi-perpetual convection. This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics. 9 | 10 | Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the earth is resurfaced. Through a process called seafloor spreading), new crust is created by the flow of magma from underneath the lithosphere to the surface, through fissures, where it cools and solidifies. Through a process called subduction, oceanic crust is pushed underground — beneath the rest of the lithosphere—where it comes into contact with magma and melts—rejoining the mantle from which it originally came. 11 | 12 | Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called divergent boundaries, those where it is brought back into the earth are convergent boundaries and those where plates slide past each other, but no new lithospheric material is created or destroyed, are referred to as transform (or conservative) boundaries Earthquakes result from the movement of the lithospheric plates, and they often occur near convergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into the earth as part of subduction. 13 | 14 | Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that is forced into the asthenosphere melts, and some portion of the melted material becomes light enough to rise to the surface—giving birth to volcanoes. 15 | 16 | An electromagnet is a magnet that is created by a current that flows around a soft iron core. Earth has a solid iron inner core surrounded by semi-liquid materials of the outer core that move in continuous currents around the inner core; therefore, the Earth is an electromagnet. This is referred to as the dynamo theory of Earth's magnetism. 17 | 18 | The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, and 0.92% argon. 75% of the gases in the atmosphere are located within the troposphere, the bottom-most layer. The remaining one percent of the atmosphere (all but the nitrogen, oxygen, and argon) contains small amounts of other gases including CO and water vapors. Water vapors and CO allow the Earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect. This allows Earth's surface to be warm enough to have liquid water and support life. 19 | 20 | The magnetic field created by the internal motions of the core produces the magnetosphere which protects the Earth's atmosphere from the solar wind. As the earth is 4.5 billion years old, it would have lost its atmosphere by now if there were no protective magnetosphere. 21 | 22 | In addition to storing heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding the Earth's surface from cosmic rays. Note that the level of protection is high enough to prevent cosmic rays from destroying all life on Earth, yet low enough to aid the mutations that have an important role in pushing forward diversity in the biosphere. 23 | 24 | Like all other scientists, Earth scientists apply the scientific method. They formulate hypotheses after observing events and gathering data about natural phenomena, and then they test hypotheses from such data. 25 | 26 | A contemporary idea within earth science is uniformitarianism. Uniformitarianism says that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed". Simply stated, this means that geological processes occurring today happened in the past -- the present is the key to the past. For example, a mountain need not be thought of as having been created in a moment, but instead it may be seen as the result of continuous subduction, causing magma to rise and form continental volcanic arcs. 27 | 28 | Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere; these correspond to rocks, water, air, and life. Some practitioners include, as part of the spheres of the Earth, the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere, as well as the pedosphere (corresponding to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Computers#Security.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Security is the degree of protection to safeguard a nation, union of nations, persons or person against danger, damage, loss, and crime. Security as a form of protection are structures and processes that provide or improve security as a condition. The Institute for Security and Open Methodologies (ISECOM) in the OSSTMM 3 defines security as "a form of protection where a separation is created between the assets and the threat". This includes but is not limited to the elimination of either the asset or the threat. Security as a national condition was defined in a United Nations study (1986): so that countries can develop and progress safely. 3 | 4 | Security has to be compared to related concepts: safety, continuity, reliability. The key difference between security and reliability is that security must take into account the actions of people attempting to cause destruction. 5 | 6 | Different scenarios also give rise to the context in which security is maintained: 7 | 8 | Perception of security may be poorly mapped to measureable objective security. For example, the fear of earthquakes has been reported to be more common than the fear of slipping on the bathroom floor although the latter kills many more people than the former. Similarly, the perceived effectiveness of security measures is sometimes different from the actual security provided by those measures. The presence of security protections may even be taken for security itself. For example, two computer security programs could be interfering with each other and even cancelling each other's effect, while the owner believes s/he is getting double the protection. 9 | 10 | Security theater is a critical term for deployment of measures primarily aimed at raising subjective security in a population without a genuine or commensurate concern for the effects of that measure on—and possibly decreasing—objective security. For example, some consider the screening of airline passengers based on static databases to have been Security Theater and Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System to have created a decrease in objective security. 11 | 12 | Perception of security can also increase objective security when it affects or deters malicious behavior, as with visual signs of security protections, such as video surveillance, alarm systems in a home, or an anti-theft system in a car such as a vehicle tracking system or warning sign. 13 | 14 | Since some intruders will decide not to attempt to break into such areas or vehicles, there can actually be less damage to windows in addition to protection of valuable objects inside. Without such advertisement, a might, for example, approach a car, break the window, and then flee in response to an alarm being triggered. Either way, perhaps the car itself and the objects inside aren't stolen, but with perceived security even the windows of the car have a lower chance of being damaged, increasing the financial security of its owner(s). 15 | 16 | However, the non-profit, security research group, ISECOM, has determined that such signs may actually increase the violence, daring, and desperation of an intruder. This claim shows that perceived security works mostly on the provider and is not security at all. 17 | 18 | It is important, however, for signs advertising security not to give clues as to how to subvert that security, for example in the case where a home burglar might be more likely to break into a certain home if he or she is able to learn beforehand which company makes its security system. 19 | 20 | There is an immense literature on the analysis and categorization of security. Part of the reason for this is that, in most security systems, the "weakest link in the chain" is the most important. The situation is asymmetric since the 'defender' must cover all points of attack while the attacker need only identify a single weak point upon which to concentrate. 21 | 22 | Certain concepts recur throughout different fields of security: 23 | 24 | In the corporate world, various aspects of security were historically addressed separately - notably by distinct and often noncommunicating departments for IT security, physical security, and fraud prevention. Today there is a greater recognition of the interconnected nature of security requirements, an approach variously known as holistic security, "all hazards" management, and other terms. 25 | 26 | Inciting factors in the convergence of security disciplines include the development of digital video surveillance technologies (see Professional video over IP) and the digitization and networking of physical control systems (see SCADA). Greater interdisciplinary cooperation is further evidenced by the February 2005 creation of the Alliance for Enterprise Security Risk Management, a joint venture including leading associations in security (ASIS), information security (ISSA, the Information Systems Security Association), and IT audit (ISACA, the Information Systems Audit and Control Association). 27 | 28 | In 2007 the International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) released ISO 28000 - Security Management Systems for the supply chain. Although the title supply chain is included, this Standard specifies the requirements for a security management system, including those aspects critical to security assurance for any organisation or enterprise wishing to management the security of the organisation and its activities. ISO 28000 is the foremost risk based security system and is suitable for managing both public and private regulatory security, customs and industry based security schemes and requirements. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Shopping#Children.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Biologically, a child (plural: children) is generally a human between the stages of birth and puberty. Some vernacular definitions of a child include the fetus, as being an unborn child. The legal definition of "child" generally refers to a minor, otherwise known as a person younger than the age of majority. "Child" may also describe a relationship with a parent (such as sons and daughters of any age) or, metaphorically, an authority figure, or signify group membership in a clan, tribe, or religion; it can also signify being strongly affected by a specific time, place, or circumstance, as in "a child of nature" or "a child of the Sixties". 3 | 4 | The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child defines a child as "a human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier". Ratified by 192 of 194 member countries. Some English definitions of the word 'child' include the fetus and the unborn. Biologically, a child is anyone between birth and puberty or in the developmental stage of childhood, between infancy and adulthood. Children generally have fewer rights than adults and are classed as not able to make serious decisions, and legally must always be under the care of a responsible adult. 5 | 6 | Recognition of childhood as a state different from adulthood began to emerge in the 16th and 17th centuries. Society began to relate to the child not as a miniature adult but as a person of a lower level of maturity needing adult protection, love and nurturing. This change can be traced in paintings: In the Middle Ages, children were portrayed in art as miniature adults with no childish characteristics. In the 16th century, images of children began to acquire a distinct childish appearance. From the late 17th century onwards, children were shown playing. Toys and literature for children also began to develop at this time. 7 | 8 | All children go through stages of social development. An infant or very young child will play alone happily. If another child wanders onto the scene, he/she may be physically attacked or pushed out of the way. Next, the child is able to play with another child, gradually learning to share and take turns. Eventually, the group grows larger, to three or four children. By the time a child enters kindergarten, he or she is usually able to join in and enjoy group experiences. 9 | 10 | Children with ADHD and learning disabilities may need extra help in developing social skills. The impulsive characteristics of an ADHD child may lead to poor peer relationships. Children with poor attention spans may not tune in to social cues in their environment, making it difficult for them to learn social skills through experience. 11 | 12 | Social attitudes toward children differ around the world in various cultures. These attitudes have changed over time. A 1988 study on European attitudes toward the centrality of children found that Italy was more child-centric and Holland less child-centric, with other countries, such as Austria, Great Britain, Ireland and West Germany falling in between. 13 | 14 | The age at which children are considered responsible for their society-bound actions (e. g. marriage, voting, etc.) has also changed over time, and this is reflected in the way they are treated in courts of law. In Roman times, children were regarded as not culpable for crimes, a position later adopted by the Church. In the 19th century, children younger than seven years old were believed incapable of crime. Children from the age of seven forward were considered responsible for their actions. Therefore, they could face criminal charges, be sent to adult prison, and be punished like adults by whipping, branding or hanging. Today, in many countries like Canada and the United States, children twelve and older are held responsible for their actions and may be sent to special correctional institutions, such as juvenile hall. 15 | 16 | Surveys have found that at least 25 countries around the world have no specified age for compulsory education. Minimum employment age and marriage age also vary. In at least 125 countries, children aged 7–15 may be taken to court and risk imprisonment for criminal acts. In some countries, children are legally obliged to go to school until they are 14 or 15 years old, but may also work before that age. A child's right to education is threatened by early marriage, child labour and imprisonment. 17 | 18 | China's one-child policy forces some couples to have no more than one child. China's population policy has been credited with a very significant slowing of China's population growth which had been higher before the policy was implemented. It has come under criticism that the implementation of the policy has involved forced abortions and forced sterilization. However, while the punishment of "unplanned" pregnancy is a fine, both forced abortion and forced sterilization can be charged as intentional assault, which is punished with up to 10 years' imprisonment. If born with another child and kept, parents must pay a large fine for every day he/she is alive. 19 | 20 | During the early 17th century in England, life expectancy was only about 35 years, largely because two-thirds of all children died before the age of four. During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. 21 | 22 | According to population health experts, child mortality rates have fallen sharply since the 1990s. Deaths of children under the age of five are down by 42% in the United States, while Serbia and Malaysia have cut their rates by nearly 70%. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Recreation#Humor.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Humour or humor (see spelling differences) is the tendency of particular cognitive experiences to provoke laughter and provide amusement. The term derives from the humoral medicine of the ancient Greeks, which taught that the balance of fluids in the human body, known as humors (Latin: humor, "body fluid"), control human health and emotion. 3 | 4 | People of all ages and cultures respond to humour. The majority of people are able to experience humour, i.e., to be amused, to laugh or smile at something funny, and thus they are considered to have a sense of humour. The hypothetical person lacking a sense of humour would likely find the behaviour induced by humour to be inexplicable, strange, or even irrational. Though ultimately decided by personal taste, the extent to which a person will find something humorous depends upon a host of variables, including geographical location, culture, maturity, level of education, intelligence and context. For example, young children may favour slapstick, such as Punch and Judy puppet shows or cartoons such as Tom and Jerry. Satire may rely more on understanding the target of the humour and thus tends to appeal to more mature audiences. 5 | 6 | Many theories exist about what humour is and what social function it serves. The prevailing types of theories attempting to account for the existence of humour include psychological theories, the vast majority of which consider humour-induced behaviour to be very healthy; spiritual theories, which may, for instance, consider humour to be a "gift from God"; and theories which consider humour to be an unexplainable mystery, very much like a mystical experience. 7 | 8 | Some claim that humour cannot or should not be explained. Author E.B. White once said, "Humor can be dissected as a frog can, but the thing dies in the process and the innards are discouraging to any but the pure scientific mind." 9 | 10 | Arthur Schopenhauer lamented the misuse of the term "humour" (a German loanword from English) to mean any type of comedy. However, both "humour" and "comic" are often used when theorising about the subject. The connotations of "humour" as opposed to "comic" are said to be that of response versus stimulus. Additionally, "humour" was thought to include a combination of ridiculousness and wit in an individual; the paradigmatic case being Shakespeare's Sir John Falstaff. The French were slow to adopt the term "humour"; in French, "humeur" and "humour" are still two different words, the former referring to a person's mood or to the archaic concept of the four humours. 11 | 12 | Western humour theory begins with Plato, who attributed to Socrates (as a semihistorical dialogue character) in the Philebus (p. 49b) the view that the essence of the ridiculous is an ignorance in the weak, who are thus unable to retaliate when ridiculed. Later, in Greek philosophy, Aristotle, in the Poetics (1449a, pp. 34–35), suggested that an ugliness that does not disgust is fundamental to humour. 13 | 14 | In ancient Sanskrit drama, Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra defined humour (hāsyam) as one of the nine nava rasas, or principle rasas (emotional responses), which can be inspired in the audience by bhavas, the imitations of emotions that the actors perform. Each rasa was associated with a specific bhavas portrayed on stage. In the case of humour, it was associated with mirth (hasya). 15 | 16 | The terms "comedy" and "satire" became synonymous after Aristotle's Poetics was translated into Arabic in the medieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon by Arabic writers and Islamic philosophers such as Abu Bischr, his pupil Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes. Due to cultural differences, they disassociated comedy from Greek dramatic representation, and instead identified it with Arabic poetic themes and forms, such as hija (satirical poetry). They viewed comedy as simply the "art of reprehension" and made no reference to light and cheerful events or troublous beginnings and happy endings associated with classical Greek comedy. After the Latin translations of the 12th century, the term "comedy" thus gained a new semantic meaning in Medieval literature. 17 | 18 | As with any form of art, acceptance depends on social demographics and varies from person to person. Throughout history, comedy has been used as a form of entertainment all over the world, whether in the courts of the Western kings or the villages of the Far East. Both a social etiquette and a certain intelligence can be displayed through forms of wit and sarcasm. Eighteenth-century German author Georg Lichtenberg said that "the more you know humour, the more you become demanding in fineness." 19 | 20 | Humour can be verbal, visual, or physical. Nonverbal forms of communication - for example, music or art - can also be humorous. 21 | 22 | Rowan Atkinson explains in his lecture in the documentary "Funny Business" that an object or a person can become funny in three ways. They are: 23 | 24 | Most sight gags fit into one or more of these categories. 25 | 26 | "Some theoreticians of the comic consider exaggeration to be a universal comic device". It may take different forms in different genres, but all rely on the fact that "the easiest way to make things laughable is to exaggerate to the point of absurdity their salient traits". 27 | 28 | Different cultures have different expectations of humour so comedy shows are not always successful when transplanted into another culture. Two well-known stereotypes in Britain are that Americans don't understand irony and that Germans have no sense of humour. Whether these statements have any validity has been discussed in a BBC News article. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Society#Subcultures.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | In sociology, anthropology and cultural studies, a subculture is a group of people within a culture (whether distinct or hidden) which differentiates them from the larger culture to which they belong. 3 | 4 | As early as 1950, David Riesman distinguished between a majority, "which passively accepted commercially provided styles and meanings, and a 'subculture' which actively sought a minority style ... and interpreted it in accordance with subversive values". In his 1979 book Subculture: the Measuring of Style, Dick Hebdige argued that a subculture is a subversion to normalcy. He wrote that subcultures can be perceived as negative due to their nature of criticism to the dominant societal standard. Hebdige argued that subcultures bring together like-minded individuals who feel neglected by societal standards and allow them to develop a sense of identity. 5 | 6 | In 1995, Sarah Thornton, drawing on Pierre Bourdieu, described "subcultural capital" as the cultural knowledge and commodities acquired by members of a subculture, raising their status and helping differentiate themselves from members of other groups. In 2007, Ken Gelder proposed to distinguish subcultures from countercultures based on the level of immersion in society. Gelder further proposed six key ways in which subcultures can be identified: 7 | 8 | The study of subcultures often consists of the study of symbolism attached to clothing, music and other visible affectations by members of subcultures, and also the ways in which these same symbols are interpreted by members of the dominant culture. According to Dick Hebdige, members of a subculture often signal their membership through a distinctive and symbolic use of style, which includes fashions, mannerisms, and argot. 9 | 10 | Subcultures can exist at all levels of organizations, highlighting the fact that there are multiple cultures or value combinations usually evident in any one organization that can complement but also compete with the overall organisational culture. In some cases, subcultures have been legislated against, and their activities regulated or curtailed. 11 | 12 | It may be difficult to identify certain subcultures because their style (particularly clothing and music) may be adopted by mass culture for commercial purposes. Businesses often seek to capitalize on the subversive allure of subcultures in search of Cool, which remains valuable in the selling of any product. This process of cultural appropriation may often result in the death or evolution of the subculture, as its members adopt new styles that appear alien to mainstream society. 13 | 14 | Music-based subcultures are particularly vulnerable to this process, and so what may be considered a subculture at one stage in its history—such as jazz, goth, punk, hip hop and rave cultures—may represent mainstream taste within a short period of time. Some subcultures reject or modify the importance of style, stressing membership through the adoption of an ideology which may be much more resistant to commercial exploitation. The punk subculture's distinctive (and initially shocking) style of clothing was adopted by mass-market fashion companies once the subculture became a media interest. Dick Hebdige argues that the punk subculture shares the same "radical aesthetic practices" as Dada and surrealism: 15 | 16 | In 1985, French sociologist Michel Maffesoli coined the term urban tribe. It gained widespread use after the publication of his Le temps des tribus: le déclin de l'individualisme dans les sociétés postmodernes (1988). Eight years later, this book was published in the United Kingdom as The Time of the Tribes: The Decline of Individualism in Mass Society. 17 | 18 | According to Maffesoli, urban tribes are microgroups of people who share common interests in urban areas. The members of these relatively small groups tend to have similar worldviews, dress styles and behavioral patterns. Their social interactions are largely informal and emotionally laden, different from late capitalism's corporate-bourgeoisie cultures, based on dispassionate logic. Maffesoli claims that punks are a typical example of an "urban tribe". 19 | 20 | Five years after the first English translation of Le temps des tribus, writer Ethan Watters claims to have coined the same neologism in a New York Times Magazine article. This was later expanded upon the idea in his book Urban Tribes: A Generation Redefines Friendship, Family, and Commitment. According to Watters, urban tribes are groups of never-marrieds between the ages of 25 and 45 who gather in common-interest groups and enjoy an urban lifestyle, which offers an alternative to traditional family structures. 21 | 22 | The sexual revolution of the 1960s led to a countercultural rejection of the established sexual and gender norms, particularly in the urban areas of Europe, North and South America, Australia, and white South Africa. A more permissive social environment in these areas led to a proliferation of sexual subcultures—cultural expressions of non-normative sexuality. As with other subcultures, sexual subcultures adopted certain styles of fashion and gestures to distinguish them from the mainstream. 23 | 24 | Homosexuals expressed themselves through the gay culture, considered the largest sexual subculture of the 20th century. With the ever increasing acceptance of homosexuality in the early 21st century, including its expressions in fashion, music, and design, the gay culture can no longer be considered a subculture in many parts of the world, although some aspects of gay culture like leathermen, bears, and feeders are considered subcultures within the gay movement itself. The butch and femme identities or roles among some lesbians also engender their own subculture with stereotypical attire, for instance drag kings. A late 1980s development, the queer movement can be considered a subculture broadly encompassing those that reject normativity in sexual behavior, and who celebrate visibility and activism. The wider movement coincided with growing academic interests in queer studies and queer theory. Aspects of sexual subcultures can vary along other cultural lines. For instance, in the United States, the term down-low is used to refer to African-American men who do not identify themselves with the gay or queer cultures, but who practice gay cruising, and adopt a specific hip-hop attire during this activity. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Recreation.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Recreation is an activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time. The "need to do something for recreation" is an essential element of human biology and psychology. Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasure and are considered to be "fun". The term recreation implies participation to be healthy refreshing mind and body. 3 | 4 | The term recreation appears to have been used in English first in the late 14th century, first in the sense of "refreshment or curing of a sick person", and derived from Old French, in turn from Latin (re: "again", creare: "to create, bring forth, beget.) 5 | 6 | Humans spend their time in activities of daily living, work, sleep, social duties, and leisure, the latter time being free from prior commitments to physiologic or social needs, a prerequisite of recreation. Leisure has increased with increased longevity and, for many, with decreased hours spent for physical and economic survival, yet others argue that time pressure has increased for modern people, as they are committed to too many tasks. Other factors that account for an increased role of recreation are affluence, population trends, and increased commercialization of recreational offerings. While one perception is that leisure is just "spare time", time not consumed by the necessities of living, another holds that leisure is a force that allows individuals to consider and reflect on the values and realities that are missed in the activities of daily life, thus being an essential element of personal development and civilization. This direction of thought has even been extended to the view that leisure is the purpose of work, and a reward in itself, and "leisure life" reflects the values and character of a nation. Leisure is considered a human right under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 7 | 8 | Recreation is difficult to separate from the general concept of play, which is usually the term for children's recreational activity. Children may playfully imitate activities that reflect the realities of adult life. It has been proposed that play or recreational activities are outlets of or expression of excess energy, channeling it into socially acceptable activities that fulfill individual as well as societal needs, without need for compulsion, and providing satisfaction and pleasure for the participant. A traditional view holds that work is supported by recreation, recreation being useful to "recharge the battery" so that work performance is improved. Work, an activity generally performed out of economic necessity and useful for society and organized within the economic framework, however can also be pleasurable and may be self-imposed thus blurring the distinction to recreation. Many activities may be work for one person and recreation for another, or, at an individual level, over time recreational activity may become work, and vice-versa. Thus, for a musician, playing an instrument may be at one time a profession, and at another a recreation there is a lot more to do. Similarly, it maybe difficult to separate education from recreation as in the case of recreational mathematics. 9 | 10 | Recreation is an essential part of human life and finds many different forms which are shaped naturally by individual interests but also by the surrounding social construction. Recreational activities can be communal or solitary, active or passive, outdoors or indoors, healthy or harmful, and useful for society or detrimental. A list of typical activities could be almost endless including most human activities, a few examples being reading, playing or listening to music, watching movies or TV, gardening, hunting, hobbies, sports, studies, and travel. Not all recreational activities can be considered wise, healthy, or socially acceptable or useful—examples are gambling, drinking, or delinquent activities. Recreational drugs are being used to enhance the recreational experience, a wide-ranging and controversial subject as some drugs are accepted or tolerated by society within limits, others not and declared illegal. 11 | 12 | Public space such as parks and beaches are essential venues for many recreational activities. Tourism has recognized that many visitors are specifically attracted by recreational offerings. In support of recreational activities government has taken an important role in their creation, maintenance, and organization, and whole industries have developed merchandise or services. Recreation-related business is an important factor in the economy; it has been estimated that the outdoor recreation sector alone contributes $730 billion annually to the U.S. economy and generates 6.5 million jobs. 13 | 14 | Many recreational activities are organized, typically by public institutions, voluntary group-work agencies, private groups supported by membership fees, and commercial enterprises. Examples of each of these are the National Park Service, the YMCA, the Kiwanis, and Disney World. 15 | 16 | Recreation has many health benefits, and, accordingly, recreational therapy has been developed to take advantage of this effect. Such therapy is applied in rehabilitation, and in the care of the elderly, the disabled, or people with chronic diseases. Recreational physical activity is important to reduce obesity, and the risk of osteoporosis and of cancer, most significantly in men that of colon and prostate, and in women that of the breast; however, not all malignancies are reduced as outdoor recreation has been linked to a higher risk of melanoma. Extreme adventure recreation naturally carries its own hazards. 17 | 18 | A recreation specialist would be expected to meet the recreational needs of a community or assigned interest group. Educational institutions offer courses that lead to a degree as a bachelor of arts in recreation management. People with such degrees often work in parks and recreation centers in towns, on community projects and activities. Networking with instructors, budgeting, and evaluation of continuing programs are common job duties. 19 | 20 | In the United States, most states have a professional organization for continuing education and certification in recreation management. The National Recreation and Park Association administers a certification program called the CPRP (Certified Park and Recreation Professional) that is considered a national standard for professional recreation specialist practices. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Shopping#Recreation.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Recreation is an activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time. The "need to do something for recreation" is an essential element of human biology and psychology. Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasure and are considered to be "fun". The term recreation implies participation to be healthy refreshing mind and body. 3 | 4 | The term recreation appears to have been used in English first in the late 14th century, first in the sense of "refreshment or curing of a sick person", and derived from Old French, in turn from Latin (re: "again", creare: "to create, bring forth, beget.) 5 | 6 | Humans spend their time in activities of daily living, work, sleep, social duties, and leisure, the latter time being free from prior commitments to physiologic or social needs, a prerequisite of recreation. Leisure has increased with increased longevity and, for many, with decreased hours spent for physical and economic survival, yet others argue that time pressure has increased for modern people, as they are committed to too many tasks. Other factors that account for an increased role of recreation are affluence, population trends, and increased commercialization of recreational offerings. While one perception is that leisure is just "spare time", time not consumed by the necessities of living, another holds that leisure is a force that allows individuals to consider and reflect on the values and realities that are missed in the activities of daily life, thus being an essential element of personal development and civilization. This direction of thought has even been extended to the view that leisure is the purpose of work, and a reward in itself, and "leisure life" reflects the values and character of a nation. Leisure is considered a human right under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 7 | 8 | Recreation is difficult to separate from the general concept of play, which is usually the term for children's recreational activity. Children may playfully imitate activities that reflect the realities of adult life. It has been proposed that play or recreational activities are outlets of or expression of excess energy, channeling it into socially acceptable activities that fulfill individual as well as societal needs, without need for compulsion, and providing satisfaction and pleasure for the participant. A traditional view holds that work is supported by recreation, recreation being useful to "recharge the battery" so that work performance is improved. Work, an activity generally performed out of economic necessity and useful for society and organized within the economic framework, however can also be pleasurable and may be self-imposed thus blurring the distinction to recreation. Many activities may be work for one person and recreation for another, or, at an individual level, over time recreational activity may become work, and vice-versa. Thus, for a musician, playing an instrument may be at one time a profession, and at another a recreation there is a lot more to do. Similarly, it maybe difficult to separate education from recreation as in the case of recreational mathematics. 9 | 10 | Recreation is an essential part of human life and finds many different forms which are shaped naturally by individual interests but also by the surrounding social construction. Recreational activities can be communal or solitary, active or passive, outdoors or indoors, healthy or harmful, and useful for society or detrimental. A list of typical activities could be almost endless including most human activities, a few examples being reading, playing or listening to music, watching movies or TV, gardening, hunting, hobbies, sports, studies, and travel. Not all recreational activities can be considered wise, healthy, or socially acceptable or useful—examples are gambling, drinking, or delinquent activities. Recreational drugs are being used to enhance the recreational experience, a wide-ranging and controversial subject as some drugs are accepted or tolerated by society within limits, others not and declared illegal. 11 | 12 | Public space such as parks and beaches are essential venues for many recreational activities. Tourism has recognized that many visitors are specifically attracted by recreational offerings. In support of recreational activities government has taken an important role in their creation, maintenance, and organization, and whole industries have developed merchandise or services. Recreation-related business is an important factor in the economy; it has been estimated that the outdoor recreation sector alone contributes $730 billion annually to the U.S. economy and generates 6.5 million jobs. 13 | 14 | Many recreational activities are organized, typically by public institutions, voluntary group-work agencies, private groups supported by membership fees, and commercial enterprises. Examples of each of these are the National Park Service, the YMCA, the Kiwanis, and Disney World. 15 | 16 | Recreation has many health benefits, and, accordingly, recreational therapy has been developed to take advantage of this effect. Such therapy is applied in rehabilitation, and in the care of the elderly, the disabled, or people with chronic diseases. Recreational physical activity is important to reduce obesity, and the risk of osteoporosis and of cancer, most significantly in men that of colon and prostate, and in women that of the breast; however, not all malignancies are reduced as outdoor recreation has been linked to a higher risk of melanoma. Extreme adventure recreation naturally carries its own hazards. 17 | 18 | A recreation specialist would be expected to meet the recreational needs of a community or assigned interest group. Educational institutions offer courses that lead to a degree as a bachelor of arts in recreation management. People with such degrees often work in parks and recreation centers in towns, on community projects and activities. Networking with instructors, budgeting, and evaluation of continuing programs are common job duties. 19 | 20 | In the United States, most states have a professional organization for continuing education and certification in recreation management. The National Recreation and Park Association administers a certification program called the CPRP (Certified Park and Recreation Professional) that is considered a national standard for professional recreation specialist practices. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Business#Textiles_and_Nonwovens.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Nonwoven fabric is a fabric-like material made from long fibres, bonded together by chemical, mechanical, heat or solvent treatment. The term is used in the textile manufacturing industry to denote fabrics, such as felt, which are neither woven nor knitted. Nonwoven materials typically lack strength unless densified or reinforced by a backing. In recent years, nonwovens have become an alternative to polyurethane foam. 3 | 4 | Nonwoven fabrics are broadly defined as sheet or web structures bonded together by entangling fibre or filaments (and by perforating films) mechanically, thermally or chemically. They are flat, porous sheets that are made directly from separate fibres or from molten plastic or plastic film. They are not made by weaving or knitting and do not require converting the fibres to yarn. Typically, a certain percentage of recycled fabrics and oil-based materials are used in nonwoven fabrics. The percentage of recycled fabrics vary based upon the strength of material needed for the specific use. Conversely, some nonwoven fabrics can be recycled after use, given the proper treatment and facilities. For this reason, some consider nonwovens a more ecological fabric for certain applications, especially in fields and industries where disposable or single use products are important, such as hospitals, schools, nursing homes and luxury accommodations. 5 | 6 | Nonwoven fabrics are engineered fabrics that may be a limited life, single-use fabric or a very durable fabric. Nonwoven fabrics provide specific functions such as absorbency, liquid repellence, resilience, stretch, softness, strength, flame retardancy, washability, cushioning, filtering, use as a bacterial barrier and sterility. These properties are often combined to create fabrics suited for specific jobs, while achieving a good balance between product use-life and cost. They can mimic the appearance, texture and strength of a woven fabric and can be as bulky as the thickest paddings. In combination with other materials they provide a spectrum of products with diverse properties, and are used alone or as components of apparel, home furnishings, health care, engineering, industrial and consumer goods. 7 | 8 | Non-woven materials are used in numerous applications, including: 9 | 10 | Nonwovens are typically manufactured by putting small fibres together in the form of a sheet or web (similar to paper on a paper machine), and then binding them either mechanically (as in the case of felt, by interlocking them with serrated needles such that the inter-fibre friction results in a stronger fabric), with an adhesive, or thermally (by applying binder (in the form of powder, paste, or polymer melt) and melting the binder onto the web by increasing temperature). 11 | 12 | Staple nonwovens are made in 2 steps. Fibres are first spun, cut to a few centimetres length, and put into bales. These bales are then dispersed on a conveyor belt, and the fibres are spread in a uniform web by a wetlaid process or by carding. Wetlaid operations typically use 1/4" to 3/4" long fibres, but sometimes longer if the fibre is stiff or thick. Carding operations typically use ~1.5" long fibres. Rayon used to be a common fibre in nonwovens, now greatly replaced by PET and PP. Fibreglass is wetlaid into mats for use in roofing and shingles. Synthetic fibre blends are wetlaid along with cellulose for single-use fabrics. Staple nonwovens are bonded by using either resin or thermally. Bonding can be throughout the web by resin saturation or overall thermal bonding or in a distinct pattern via resin printing or thermal spot bonding. Conforming with staple fibres usually refers to a combination with meltblown, often used in high-end textile insulations. Melt Blown non wovens are produced by extruding melted polymer fibres through a spin net or die consisting of up to 40 holes per inch to form long thin fibres which are stretched and cooled by passing hot air over the fibres as they fall from the die.The resultant web is collected into rolls and subsequently converted to finished products.The extremely fine fibres typically polypropylene differ from other extrusions particularly spun bond in that they have low intrinsic strength but much smaller size offering key properties.Often melt blown is added to spun bond to form SM or SMS webs, which are strong and offer the intrinsic benefits of fine fibres such as fine filtration, low pressure drop as used in face masks or filters and physical benefits such as acoustic insulation as used in dishwashers. One of the largest users of SM and SMS materials is the disposable diaper and feminine care industry 13 | 14 | Spunlaid nonwovens are made in one continuous process. Fibres are spun and then directly dispersed into a web by deflectors or can be directed with air streams. This technique leads to faster belt speeds, and cheaper costs. Several variants of this concept are available, but the leading technology is the REICOFIL machinery. PP spunbonds run faster and at lower temperatures than PET spunbonds, mostly due to the difference in melting points. Spunbond has been combined with meltblown nonwovens, conforming them into a layered product called SMS (spun-melt-spun). Meltblown nonwovens have extremely fine fibre diameters but are not strong fabrics. SMS fabrics, made completely from PP are water-repellent and fine enough to serve as disposable fabrics. Meltblown is often used as filter media, being able to capture very fine particles. Spunlaid is bonded by either resin or thermally. Regarding the bonding of Spunlaid, Rieter has launched a new generation of nonwovens called Spunjet. In fact, Spunjet is the bonding of the Spunlaid filaments thanks to the hydroentanglement 15 | 16 | Air-laid paper is a textile-like material categorized as a nonwoven fabric made from wood pulp. Unlike the normal papermaking process, air-laid paper does not use water as the carrying medium for the fibre. Fibres are carried and formed to the structure of paper by air. 17 | 18 | Nonwovens can also start with films and fibrillate, serrate or vacuum-form them with patterned holes. Fiberglass nonwovens are of two basic types. Wet laid mat or "glass tissue" use wet-chopped, heavy denier fibers in the 6 to 20 micrometre diameter range. Flame attenuated mats or "batts" use discontinuous fine denier fibres in the 0.1 to 6 range. The latter is similar, though run at much higher temperatures, to meltblown thermoplastic nonwovens. Wet laid mat is almost always wet resin bonded with a curtain coater, while batts are usually spray bonded with wet or dry resin. An unusual process produces polyethylene fibrils in a Freon-like fluid, forming them into a paper-like product and then calendering them to create Tyvek. 19 | 20 | Both staple and spunlaid nonwovens would have no mechanical resistance in and of themselves, without the bonding step. Several methods can be used: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /topics.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Arts 2 | Arts/Animation 3 | Arts/Architecture 4 | Arts/Art_History 5 | Arts/Awards 6 | Arts/Bodyart 7 | Arts/Comics 8 | Arts/Crafts 9 | Arts/Design 10 | Arts/Entertainment 11 | Arts/Genres 12 | Arts/Graphic_Design 13 | Arts/Humanities 14 | Arts/Literature 15 | Arts/Movies 16 | Arts/Music 17 | Arts/People 18 | Arts/Performing_Arts 19 | Arts/Photography 20 | Arts/Radio 21 | Arts/Television 22 | Arts/Visual_Arts 23 | Arts/Writers_Resources 24 | Business 25 | Business/Aerospace_and_Defense 26 | Business/Agriculture_and_Forestry 27 | Business/Arts_and_Entertainment 28 | Business/Automotive 29 | Business/Biotechnology_and_Pharmaceuticals 30 | Business/Business_Services 31 | Business/Chemicals 32 | Business/Construction_and_Maintenance 33 | Business/Consumer_Goods_and_Services 34 | Business/E-Commerce 35 | Business/Employment 36 | Business/Energy 37 | Business/Environment 38 | Business/Financial_Services 39 | Business/Food_and_Related_Products 40 | Business/Healthcare 41 | Business/Hospitality 42 | Business/Industrial_Goods_and_Services 43 | Business/Information_Technology 44 | Business/Investing 45 | Business/Major_Companies 46 | Business/Marketing_and_Advertising 47 | Business/Opportunities 48 | Business/Publishing_and_Printing 49 | Business/Real_Estate 50 | Business/Retail_Trade 51 | Business/Small_Business 52 | Business/Telecommunications 53 | Business/Textiles_and_Nonwovens 54 | Business/Transportation_and_Logistics 55 | Computers 56 | Computers/Algorithms 57 | Computers/Artificial_Intelligence 58 | Computers/CAD_and_CAM 59 | Computers/Companies 60 | Computers/Data_Communications 61 | Computers/Data_Formats 62 | Computers/Desktop_Publishing 63 | Computers/Education 64 | Computers/Emulators 65 | Computers/Graphics 66 | Computers/Hardware 67 | Computers/History 68 | Computers/Internet 69 | Computers/Mobile_Computing 70 | Computers/Open_Source 71 | Computers/Programming 72 | Computers/Security 73 | Computers/Software 74 | Computers/Systems 75 | Computers/Usenet 76 | Games 77 | Games/Board_Games 78 | Games/Gambling 79 | Games/Online 80 | Games/Puzzles 81 | Games/Roleplaying 82 | Games/Trading_Card_Games 83 | Games/Video_Games 84 | Games/Yard,_Deck,_and_Table_Games 85 | Health 86 | Health/Addictions 87 | Health/Alternative 88 | Health/Animal 89 | Health/Beauty 90 | Health/Child_Health 91 | Health/Conditions_and_Diseases 92 | Health/Dentistry 93 | Health/Home_Health 94 | Health/Medicine 95 | Health/Men's_Health 96 | Health/Mental_Health 97 | Health/Nursing 98 | Health/Nutrition 99 | Health/Pharmacy 100 | Health/Professions 101 | Health/Public_Health_and_Safety 102 | Health/Reproductive_Health 103 | Health/Senior_Health 104 | Health/Senses 105 | Health/Teen_Health 106 | Health/Weight_Loss 107 | Health/Women's_Health 108 | Home/Apartment_Living 109 | Home/Consumer_Information 110 | Home/Cooking 111 | Home/Do-It-Yourself 112 | Home/Emergency_Preparation 113 | Home/Entertaining 114 | Home/Family 115 | Home/Gardening 116 | Home/Homemaking 117 | Home/Homeowners 118 | Home/Home_Improvement 119 | Home/Moving_and_Relocating 120 | Home/Personal_Finance 121 | Home/Rural_Living 122 | Home/Urban_Living 123 | Netscape/Sidebar 124 | News/Alternative 125 | News/Analysis_and_Opinion 126 | News/Breaking_News 127 | News/By_Subject 128 | News/Current_Events 129 | News/Internet_Broadcasts 130 | News/Magazines_and_E-zines 131 | News/Media 132 | News/Newspapers 133 | News/Personalized_News 134 | News/Satire 135 | News/Weather 136 | Recreation 137 | Recreation/Antiques 138 | Recreation/Autos 139 | Recreation/Aviation 140 | Recreation/Birding 141 | Recreation/Boating 142 | Recreation/Collecting 143 | Recreation/Food 144 | Recreation/Guns 145 | Recreation/Humor 146 | Recreation/Living_History 147 | Recreation/Locks 148 | Recreation/Models 149 | Recreation/Motorcycles 150 | Recreation/Nudism 151 | Recreation/Outdoors 152 | Recreation/Pets 153 | Recreation/Scouting 154 | Recreation/Theme_Parks 155 | Recreation/Tobacco 156 | Recreation/Trains_and_Railroads 157 | Recreation/Travel 158 | Reference/Almanacs 159 | Reference/Archives 160 | Reference/Bibliography 161 | Reference/Dictionaries 162 | Reference/Directories 163 | Reference/Education 164 | Reference/Encyclopedias 165 | Reference/Knowledge_Management 166 | Reference/Libraries 167 | Reference/Maps 168 | Reference/Museums 169 | Reference/Quotations 170 | Regional 171 | Regional/Africa 172 | Regional/Asia 173 | Regional/Caribbean 174 | Regional/Europe 175 | Regional/Middle_East 176 | Regional/North_America 177 | Regional/Oceania 178 | Regional/South_America 179 | Science/Agriculture 180 | Science/Anomalies_and_Alternative_Science 181 | Science/Biology 182 | Science/Chemistry 183 | Science/Earth_Sciences 184 | Science/Educational_Resources 185 | Science/Employment 186 | Science/Environment 187 | Science/Math 188 | Science/Physics 189 | Science/Social_Sciences 190 | Science/Technology 191 | Shopping/Antiques_and_Collectibles 192 | Shopping/Auctions 193 | Shopping/Children 194 | Shopping/Classifieds 195 | Shopping/Clothing 196 | Shopping/Consumer_Electronics 197 | Shopping/Crafts 198 | Shopping/Entertainment 199 | Shopping/Ethnic_and_Regional 200 | Shopping/Food 201 | Shopping/Gifts 202 | Shopping/Health 203 | Shopping/Holidays 204 | Shopping/Home_and_Garden 205 | Shopping/Jewelry 206 | Shopping/Pets 207 | Shopping/Photography 208 | Shopping/Publications 209 | Shopping/Recreation 210 | Shopping/Sports 211 | Shopping/Toys_and_Games 212 | Shopping/Vehicles 213 | Shopping/Visual_Arts 214 | Shopping/Weddings 215 | Society/Activism 216 | Society/Advice 217 | Society/Crime 218 | Society/Death 219 | Society/Disabled 220 | Society/Ethnicity 221 | Society/Folklore 222 | Society/Future 223 | Society/Gay,_Lesbian,_and_Bisexual 224 | Society/Genealogy 225 | Society/Government 226 | Society/History 227 | Society/Holidays 228 | Society/Issues 229 | Society/Law 230 | Society/Lifestyle_Choices 231 | Society/Military 232 | Society/Organizations 233 | Society/Paranormal 234 | Society/People 235 | Society/Philosophy 236 | Society/Politics 237 | Society/Relationships 238 | Society/Religion_and_Spirituality 239 | Society/Sexuality 240 | Society/Subcultures 241 | Society/Support_Groups 242 | Society/Transgendered 243 | Society/Work 244 | Sports 245 | Sports/Baseball 246 | Sports/Basketball 247 | Sports/Boxing 248 | Sports/Cheerleading 249 | Sports/College_and_University 250 | Sports/Cricket 251 | Sports/Cue_Sports 252 | Sports/Cycling 253 | Sports/Equestrian 254 | Sports/Events 255 | Sports/Fantasy 256 | Sports/Football 257 | Sports/Golf 258 | Sports/Gymnastics 259 | Sports/Hockey 260 | Sports/Informal_Sports 261 | Sports/Jai_Alai 262 | Sports/Laser_Games 263 | Sports/Lumberjack 264 | Sports/Martial_Arts 265 | Sports/Motorsports 266 | Sports/Pesäpallo 267 | Sports/Skateboarding 268 | Sports/Skating 269 | Sports/Soccer 270 | Sports/Strength_Sports 271 | Sports/Tennis 272 | Sports/Track_and_Field 273 | Sports/Water_Sports 274 | Sports/Winter_Sports 275 | Sports/Wrestling 276 | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Business#Opportunities.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Opportunities (Let's Make Lots of Money) 2 | "Opportunities (Let's Make Lots of Money)" is a song by UK duo Pet Shop Boys, released as a single in 1985 and then in 1986, gaining greater popularity in both the UK and U.S. with its second release. 3 | 4 | Written as a satire of Thatcherism and its embodiment in conspicuous consumption and yuppies in the United Kingdom during the 1980s, the song's indirect attack on its subject matter has come to exemplify the Pet Shop Boys as ironists in their songwriting. 5 | 6 | The song was written during the Pet Shop Boys' formative years, in 1983. According to Neil Tennant, the main lyrical concept came while in a recording studio in Camden Town when Chris Lowe asked him to make up a lyric based around the line "Let's make lots of money". Tennant has said that he was somewhat inspired by the relationship between the characters of Dustin Hoffman and Jon Voight in the 1969 film Midnight Cowboy. 7 | 8 | The first version of the song, recorded with the duo's first producer, Bobby Orlando, was not released; upon signing with record label Parlophone, they re-recorded the song with J. J. Jeczalik (of Art of Noise) and Nicholas Froome. 9 | 10 | The original single release charted lowly at number 116 in the UK, to be exceedingly outdone by the number one spectacle of the second release of "West End Girls" in multiple countries. With producer Stephen Hague still on board from that release, a new single version and a version for the duo's debut album, Please, were mixed. The second release of "Opportunities", following the album's release, resulted in better chart performance. It is currently the only single from the band to chart higher in the US than the UK, becoming the duo's second Top 10 single in the US, peaking at #10, and just missing out (#11) in the UK. In Australia, the first version was the one to chart (although outside the Top 40). 11 | 12 | Please also included a brief, cacophonic track entitled "Opportunities (Reprise)", which was the original middle section to the song proper before it was edited out. 13 | 14 | The lyrics depict, in Tennant's words, "two losers". The song is written from the perspective of a man who describes himself as being intellectual and educated. The lyrics are addressed towards another character, identified as having "looks" and "brawn", and who is invited to join the song's protagonist in a scheme to "make lots of money". 15 | 16 | Tennant has made it clear, however, that the schemes are doomed to failure. The protagonist's claimed accreditations, a PhD in mathematics from the Sorbonne and knowledge of computer programming, are conceited fabrications. The punchline of the "joke" of the song, he says, is that "the people in it are not going to make any money". The band have attributed the cynicism of the song, in part, to the punk rock attitudes of the period. 17 | 18 | The meaning of the lyrics is taken at face value by some listeners, and this subsequent interpretation of the song as a materialistic anthem receives mixed reactions. The satirical interpretation, on the other hand, has cemented the Pet Shop Boys' reputation as ironists to many, to the chagrin of the band as the result is often their more sincere songs being ignored. 19 | 20 | A notable change between the original and re-recorded versions of "Opportunities" is the omission of the spoken outro "All the love that we had / And the love that we hide / Who will bury us / When we die?" According to Tennant, the lyrics were removed from the second version of the song as the duo feared the passage would be construed as "too pretentious". The first two lines of the outro, however, are sung within the lyrics of "Why Don't We Live Together?" from the Please album. The original single version of "Opportunities" was unavailable on compact disc until the U.S.-only Essentials compilation album in 1998, and the 2-disc expanded remaster of Please in 2001 for the UK (in an expanded form). 21 | 22 | 12-inch remixes for the 1985 release were produced by Ron Dean Miller of Nuance, while those for the 1986 release were produced by noted 1980s producer Shep Pettibone. Some of Miller's overdubs went on to be incorporated into the 1986 single version. 23 | 24 | The B-side of the 1985 release, "In the Night", is about the subculture known as the Zazous that appeared in France during the German occupation of France in World War II; concerned with fashion and music, and allied with neither the Nazis and Vichy France nor the French Resistance, they were distrusted by both sides. Tennant, having read about the movement in a book by David Pryce-Jones, asks, in the song, the question of whether this apathy essentially amounted to collaborationism. 25 | 26 | An instrumental version of "In the Night" became the opening theme music of the BBC fashion program The Clothes Show when it first aired in 1986. This continued for a decade until 1995 saw a fully instrumental re-recording of the song, "In the Night '95", for the purpose of replacing the old theme. 27 | 28 | A. "Opportunities (Let's Make Lots of Money)" – 3:45 B. "In the Night" – 4:50 29 | 30 | A. "Opportunities (Let's Make Lots of Money)" (Dance Mix) – 6:44 B. "In the Night" – 4:50 31 | 32 | A. "Opportunities (Let's Make Lots of Money)" (Version Latina) – 5:29 B1. "Opportunities" (Dub for Money) – 4:54 B2. "In the Night" – 4:50 33 | 34 | A. "Opportunities (Let's Make Lots of Money)" – 3:36 B. "Was That What It Was?" – 5:18 35 | 36 | A1. "Opportunities (Let's Make Lots of Money)" (Shep Pettibone Mastermix) – 7:18 A2. "Opportunities" (Reprise) – 4:27 B1. "Opportunities" (Original Dance Mix) – 6:45 B2. "Was That What It Was?" – 5:18 37 | 38 | The music video for the first single release was directed by soon-to-be perennial Pet Shop Boys photographer Eric Watson and 1980s staple music video director Andy Morahan. It depicts Lowe in an underground parking garage; a Cadillac pulls up to him and stops, whereupon Tennant materializes in front of it, dressed in a hat, glasses, and a suit by British fashion designer Stephen Linard, and standing inside a rectangular hole in the ground while singing the song while his face continually twitches suggesting missing frames and inflates in similar fashion to a frog. The video ends with Tennant disintegrating into dust and the car driving away. 39 | 40 | Watson was partly inspired by the images of preachers in Wise Blood, the film adaptation of the Flannery O'Connor novel of the same title, in designing Tennant's appearance. 41 | 42 | For the re-release, the prestigious Polish director Zbigniew Rybczyński was recruited. In the video, Tennant is again dressed in a suit and hat, while Lowe wears the hard hat, jeans, soiled shirt, and work gloves of a construction worker, depicting the two roles spoken of in the lyrics. The camera pans over a background of city skylines and clouds rendered in neon lines as Tennant and Lowe appear duplicated repeatedly, passing to each other symbols of the different statuses they represent — including a top hat, a trophy, a brick, and a sledgehammer. 43 | 44 | Australian jazz singer Frank Bennett recorded a big band style cover of the song for his 1998 album Cash Landing. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Games#Board_Games.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | A board game is a game that involves counters or pieces moved or placed on a pre-marked surface or "board", according to a set of rules. Games can be based on pure strategy, chance (e.g. rolling dice) or a mixture of the two, and usually have a goal which a player aims to achieve. Early board games represented a battle between two armies, and most current board games are still based on defeating opposing players in terms of counters, winning position or accrual of points (often expressed as in-game currency). 3 | 4 | There are many different types and styles of board games. Their representation of real-life situations can range from having no inherent theme, as with checkers, to having a specific theme and narrative, as with Cluedo. Rules can range from the very simple, as in tic-tac-toe, to those describing a game universe in great detail, as in Dungeons & Dragons (although most of the latter are role-playing games where the board is secondary to the game, helping to visualize the game scenario). 5 | 6 | The amount of time required to learn to play or master a game varies greatly from game to game. Learning time does not necessarily correlate with the number or complexity of rules; some games, such as chess or Go, have simple rulesets while possessing profound strategies. 7 | 8 | Board games have been played in most cultures and societies throughout history; some even pre-date literacy skill development in the earliest civilizations. A number of important historical sites, artifacts and documents exist which shed light on early board games. Some of these include: 9 | 10 | Many board games are now available as video games, which can include the computer itself as one of several players, or as sole opponent. The rise of computer use is one of the reasons said to have led to a relative decline in board games. Many board games can now be played online against a computer and/or other players. Some websites allow play in real time and immediately show the opponents' moves, while others use email to notify the players after each move (see the links at the end of this article). Modern technology (the internet and cheaper home printing) has also influenced board games via the phenomenon of print-and-play board games that you buy and print yourself. 11 | 12 | Some board games make use of components in addition to—or instead of—a board and playing pieces. Some games use CDs, video cassettes, and, more recently, DVDs in accompaniment to the game. 13 | 14 | While there has been a fair amount of scientific research on the psychology of older board games (e.g., chess, go, mancala), less has been done on contemporary board games such as Monopoly, Scrabble, and Risk. Much research has been carried out on chess, in part because many tournament players are publicly ranked in national and international lists, which makes it possible to compare their levels of expertise. The works of Adriaan de Groot, William Chase, Herbert A. Simon, and Fernand Gobet have established that knowledge, more than the ability to anticipate moves, plays an essential role in chess-playing. This seems to be the case in other traditional games such as Go and Oware (a type of mancala game), but data is lacking in regard to contemporary board games. 15 | 16 | Additionally, board games can be therapeutic. Bruce Halpenny, a games inventor said when interviewed about his game, “With crime you deal with every basic human emotion and also have enough elements to combine action with melodrama. The player’s imagination is fired as they plan to rob the train. Because of the gamble they take in the early stage of the game there is a build up of tension, which is immediately released once the train is robbed. Release of tension is therapeutic and useful in our society, because most jobs are boring and repetitive.” 17 | 18 | Linearly arranged board games have been shown to improve children's spatial numerical understanding. This is because the game is similar to a number line in that they promote a linear understanding of numbers rather than the innate logarithmic one. 19 | 20 | Most board games involve both luck and strategy. But an important feature of them is the amount of randomness/luck involved, as opposed to skill. Some games, such as chess, depend almost entirely on player skill. But many children's games are mainly decided by luck: e.g. Candy Land and Chutes and Ladders require no decisions by the players. A player may be hampered by a few poor rolls of the dice in Risk or Monopoly, but over many games a good player will win more often. While some purists consider luck not to be a desirable component of a game, others counter that elements of luck can make for far more diverse and multi-faceted strategies, as concepts such as expected value and risk management must be considered. 21 | 22 | A second feature is the game information available to players. Some games (chess being the classic example) are perfect information games: every player has complete information on the state of the game. In other games, such as Tigris and Euphrates, some information is hidden from players. This makes finding the best move more difficult, but also requires the players to estimate probabilities by the players. Tigris and Euphrates also has completely deterministic action resolution. 23 | 24 | Another important feature of a game is the importance of diplomacy, i.e. players making deals with each other. A game of solitaire, for obvious reasons, has no player interaction. Two player games usually do not involve diplomacy (cooperative games being the exception). Thus, negotiation generally features only in games for three or more people. An important facet of The Settlers of Catan, for example, is convincing people to trade with you rather than with other players. In Risk, two or more players may team up against others. Easy diplomacy involves convincing other players that someone else is winning and should therefore be teamed up against. Advanced diplomacy (e.g. in the aptly named game Diplomacy) consists of making elaborate plans together, with the possibility of betrayal. 25 | 26 | Luck may be introduced into a game by a number of methods. The most common method is the use of dice, generally six-sided. These can decide everything from how many steps a player moves their token, as in Monopoly, to how their forces fare in battle, such as in Risk, or which resources a player gains, such as in The Settlers of Catan. Other games such as Sorry! use a deck of special cards that, when shuffled, create randomness. Scrabble does something similar with randomly picked letters. Other games use spinners, timers of random length, or other sources of randomness. Trivia games have a great deal of randomness based on the questions a player has to answer. German-style board games are notable for often having rather less of a luck factor than many North American board games. 27 | 28 | Although many board games have a jargon all their own, there is a generalized terminology to describe concepts applicable to basic game mechanics and attributes common to nearly all board games. 29 | 30 | There are a number of different categories that board games can be broken up into, although considerable overlap exists, and a game may belong in several categories. The following is a list of some of the most common: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Society#Government.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Government is broadly defined as the administrative group of people with authority to govern a political state. In British English (and that of the Commonwealth of Nations), a government more narrowly refers to the particular administrative bureaucracy in control of a state at a given time —known in American English as an administration. In American English, government refers to the larger system by which any state is organized. Furthermore, government is occasionally used in English as a synonym for governance. 3 | 4 | In the case of its broad definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators, and arbitrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. A form of government, or form of state governance, refers to the set of political institutions by which a government of a state is organized. 5 | 6 | States are served by a continuous succession of different governments. Each successive government is composed of a body of individuals who control and exercise control over political decision-making. Their function is to make and enforce laws and arbitrate conflicts. In some societies, this group is often a self-perpetuating or hereditary class. In other societies, such as democracies, the political roles remain, but there is frequent turnover of the people actually filling the positions. 7 | 8 | Government of any kind currently affects every human activity in many important ways. For this reason, political scientists generally argue that government should not be studied by itself. They argue that government should be studied along with anthropology, economics, history, philosophy, science, and sociology. 9 | 10 | Nearly every country in the world is ruled by a system that combines 2 or more of the following attributes (for example, the United States is not a true capitalist society, since the government actually provides social services for its citizens). Additionally, one person's opinion of the type of government may differ from another's (for example, some may argue that the United States is a plutocracy rather than a democracy since they may believe it is ruled by the wealthy). 11 | 12 | Descriptions of governments can be based on the following attributes: 13 | 14 | Governments with Aristarchy attributes are traditionally ruled by the "best" people. 15 | 16 | Governments with Autocratic attributes are ruled by one person who has all the power over the people in a country. The Roman Republic made Dictators to lead during times of war. The Roman dictators (and Greek tyrants) were not always bad. The Roman dictators only held power for a small time. In modern times, an Autocrat's rule is not stopped by any rules of law, constitutions, or other social and political institutions. After World War II, many governments in Latin America, Asia, and Africa were ruled by autocratic governments. Examples of Autocrats include Idi Amin, Muammar Gaddafi, and Gamal Abdul Nasser. 17 | 18 | Governments with Democratic attributes are most common in the Western world and in some countries of the east. In democracies, all of the people in a country can vote during elections for representatives or political parties that they prefer. The people in democracies can elect representatives who will sit on legislatures such as the Parliament or Congress. Political parties are organizations of people with similar ideas about how a country or region should be governed. Different political parties have different ideas about how the government should handle different problems. Democracy is the government of the people, by the people, for the people. 19 | 20 | Governments with Monarchic attributes are ruled by a king or a queen who inherits their position from their family, which is often called the "royal family." There are at two opposing types of monarchies: absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies. In an absolute monarchy, the ruler has no limits on their wishes or powers. In a constitutional monarchy a ruler's powers are limited by a document called a constitution. 21 | 22 | Governments with Oligarchic attributes are ruled by a small group of powerful and/or influential people. These people may spread power equally or not equally. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given the chance to change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or monarchic. An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler, but several powerful people. Some historical examples of oligarchy are the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Apartheid in South Africa. Fictional oligarchic examples include the dystopian society of Oceania displayed in the book Nineteen Eighty-Four, the stratocracy government of Starship Troopers, and the kritarchic "Street Judges" of Judge Dredd. Some critics of representative democracy think of the United States as an oligarchy. This view is shared by anarchists. 23 | 24 | Regardless of whichever forms of government a nation, and its people, may choose for themselves; all must be safeguarded against passion and corruption. A democracy spoiled by demagoguery can become a Mobocracy. An aristocracy spoiled by corruption can become an "Oligarchy. A monarchy spoiled by lack of virtue can become tyrannical. 25 | 26 | Historically, most political systems originated as socio-economic movements; experience with those movements in power, and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government, can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves. 27 | 28 | Certain major characteristics are defining of certain types; others are historically associated with certain types of government. 29 | 30 | This list focuses on differing approaches that political systems take to the distribution of sovereignty, and the autonomy of regions within the state. 31 | 32 | In political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities, as typologies of political systems are not obvious. It is especially important in the political science fields of comparative politics and international relations. 33 | 34 | On the surface, identifying a form of government appears to be easy, as all governments have an official form. The United States is a federal republic, while the former Soviet Union was a socialist republic. However self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, defining regimes can be tricky. For example, elections are a defining characteristic of a democracy , but in practice elections in the former Soviet Union were not "free and fair" and took place in a single party state. Thus in many practical classifications it would not be considered democratic. 35 | 36 | Another complication is that a large number of political systems originate as socio-economic movements and are then carried into governments by specific parties naming themselves after those movements. Experience with those movements in power, and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government, can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves. 37 | 38 | From Middle English government, from Old French government (French gouvernement), from Latin gubernatio ("management, government"), from Ancient Greek κυβερνισμός (kubernismos), κυβέρνησις (kubernēsis, "steering, pilotage, guiding"), from κυβερνάω (kubernaō, "I steer, drive, guide, pilot") + -ment. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/News#Breaking_News.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Breaking news, also known as a a special report or news bulletin, is a current event that broadcasters feel warrants the interruption of scheduled programming and/or current news in order to report its details. Many times, breaking news is used after the news network has already reported on this story. When a story has not been reported on previously, the graphic and phrase Just In is sometimes used instead. Its use is often loosely assigned to the most significant story of the moment or a story that is being covered live. It could be a story that is simply of wide interest to viewers and has little impact otherwise. 3 | 4 | The format of a special report or breaking news event on television commonly consists of a reverse countdown from 5 or 10 seconds to allow any affiliated stations to switch to the network news feed. Then, there is an opening graphic, featuring music (such as NBC's "The Pulse of Events", composed by John Williams) which adds an emphasis on the importance of the event. This is usually followed with the introduction of a news anchor, who welcomes the viewer to the broadcast and introduces the story at hand. Lower thirds and other graphics may also be coloured differently than normal to convey a sense of urgency. 5 | 6 | Once the story is introduced, the network may, if possible, choose to continue to show a live shot of the anchor or may cut away to video or images of the story that is being followed during the broadcast. Additionally, the coverage may be passed to a reporter at the location of the breaking event, possibly sharing more information about the story as it breaks. 7 | 8 | Depending upon the story being followed, the report may last only a few minutes, or continue for multiple hours at a time. If coverage continues for an extended amount of time, the network may integrate analysis about the story through analysts in-studio, via phone, satellite, broadband (B-GAN) or through other means of communication. Depending on the severity of the event, regular commercial advertising may be completely suspended for sustained coverage, and network affiliates will be required to insert their station identification in at the top of the hour overlaid during the report rather than through the usual means of a station imaging promo or program reminder. 9 | 10 | When the coverage comes to a close, the network may either resume programming that was occurring prior to the event or begin new programming, depending upon the amount of time spent on the coverage. The anchor will usually remind viewers to check the network's website, or watch any cable news channels it may own for more information. If the story breaks during daytime programming, the anchor will usually remind viewers that there will be or might be more details on their local news that day and a full wrap-up on the network's evening news program. Usually regular daytime programming is joined in progress and segments may be missed. 11 | 12 | If the event occurs during prime time, the anchor will usually remind viewers that there will be more details on their late local news (if applicable) and on the network's breakfast news program the next morning. Programming at this time is either joined in progress or started back up at the point of the interruption, depending on whether the program is new to air, highly rated or has time left in its time slot to finish airing. 13 | 14 | On radio, the process of a breaking news story is somewhat the same, though some different considerations are made for the medium. For instance, a breaking news theme is required by default to have an urgent tenor and be used only for the purpose of true breaking news or bulletins. This is obvious on the local all-news radio stations of CBS Radio, which very rarely use a breaking news theme for all but the most urgent and dire of breaking news and is purposefully structured to give a sense of attention for the listener, almost sounding like an alarm. For local events continuous coverage may be imposed, or else the station may wait until they have a reporter at the scene and will promise more details of the event as they become available. 15 | 16 | National news over a radio network requires constant monitoring by station employees to allow the network coverage to air, although many stations will take the 'urgent' signal sent by the network and break into programming immediately. Again, continuous coverage from a national radio network depends on the severity of the event, and often the network may just pass down the coverage by their local affiliate with spare commentary by the network's anchors. 17 | 18 | Other considerations are made also; FM music stations rarely relay breaking news unless it is an event of grave national concern, though local weather warnings are always given. Less urgent events allow a network to feed updates to stations at :20, :30, and :50 after the hour to give a summary of events. Stations are also careful about what stories are relayed during play-by-play broadcasts of professional and college sports, as those are the programs most listened to on radio, so breaking news coverage is limited to only commercial breaks. 19 | 20 | While in the past programming interruptions were restricted to extremely urgent news, such breaks are now common at 24-hour news channels which may have an anchor available for live interruption at any time. Some networks, such as Sky News, largely emphasize this, even advertising the station as being "first for breaking news". 21 | 22 | In various countries and at various news outlets, terms such as "breaking," "urgent," "flash," "bulletin," and "alert" may accompany breaking news reports. The term breaking news has come to replace the older use of news bulletin, with the latter term relegated to only the most extraordinary of events. There has been widespread use of breaking news at the local level, particularly when one station in a market wants to emphasize the exclusivity of coverage. Not all viewers agree that stories assigned breaking news rise to the significance or level of interest that warrant such a designation. American network news divisions still use the term special report for either a breaking news story, a developing news story or both, but tend to use the term breaking news on their morning news and evening news programs. Most local stations across the United States that interrupt regular program for a news story use the breaking news and special report terms, with a voice-over stating either "This is a breaking news special report" or "This is a special breaking news report" or "This is a (network name) News Special Report", followed by a disclaimer for viewers who would like more information to see the network's news division website. 23 | 24 | In early coverage of a breaking story, details are commonly sketchy, usually due to the limited information available at the time. For example, during the Sago Mine disaster, initial reports were that all twelve miners were found alive, but news organizations later found only one actually survived. 25 | 26 | Another criticism has been the diluting of the importance of breaking news by the need of 24-hour news channels to fill time, applying the title to soft news stories of questionable importance and urgency, for example car chases. Others question whether the use of the term is excessive, citing occasions when the term is used even though scheduled programming is not interrupted. Some programs, such as HLN's Nancy Grace have even used the term for events which occurred months before. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Business#Information_Technology.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Information technology (IT) is concerned with the development, management, and use of computer-based information systems. 3 | 4 | Humans have been storing, retrieving, manipulating and communicating information since the Sumerians in Mesopotamia developed writing in about 3000 BC, but the term "information technology" in its modern sense first appeared in a 1958 article published in the Harvard Business Review; authors Leavitt and Whisler commented that "the new technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology (IT)." Based on the storage and processing technology employed, it is possible to distinguish four distinct phases of IT development: pre-mechanical (3000 BC – 1450 AD), mechanical (1450–1840), electromechanical (1840–1940) and electronic. This article focuses on the latter of those periods, which began in about 1940. 5 | 6 | The Information Technology Association of America has defined information technology (IT) as "the study, design, development, application, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems", but the term has also been applied more narrowly to describe a branch of engineering dealing with the use of computers and telecommunications equipment to store, retrieve, transmit and manipulate data. Although commonly used to refer to computers and computer networks, IT encompasses other information-distribution technologies such as television and telephones, a wider field more explicitly known as information and communications technology. 7 | 8 | Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, probably initially in the form of a tally stick. The Antikythera mechanism, dating from about the beginning of the first century BC, is generally considered to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer; it is also the earliest known geared mechanism. Comparable geared devices did not emerge in Europe until the 16th century, and it was not until 1645 that the first mechanical calculator capable of performing the four basic arithmetical operations was developed. 9 | 10 | Electronic computers, using either relays or valves, began to appear in the early 1940s. The electromechanical Zuse Z3, completed in 1941, was the world's first programmable computer, and by modern standards one of the first machines that could be considered a complete computing machine. Colossus, developed during the Second World War to decrypt German messages was the first electronic digital computer, but although programmable it was not general-purpose, being designed for a single task. Neither did it store its programs in memory; programming was carried out using plugs and switches to alter the internal wiring. The first recognisably modern electronic digital stored-program computer was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM), which ran its first program on 21 June 1948. 11 | 12 | Early electronic computers such as Colossus made use of punched tape, a long strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes, a technology now obsolete. Electronic data storage as used in modern computers dates from the Second World War, when a form of delay line memory was developed to remove the clutter from radar signals, the first practical application of which was the mercury delay line. The first random-access digital storage device was the Williams tube, based on a standard cathode ray tube, but the information stored in it and delay line memory was volatile in that it had to be continuously refreshed, and thus was lost once power was removed. The earliest form of non-volatile computer storage was the magnetic drum, invented in 1932 and used in the Ferranti Mark 1, the world's first commercially available general-purpose electronic computer. 13 | 14 | Most digital data today is still stored magnetically on devices such as hard disk drives, or optically on media such as CD-ROMs. It has been estimated that the worldwide capacity to store information on electronic devices grew from less than 3 exabytes in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007, doubling roughly every 3 years. 15 | 16 | Database management systems emerged in the 1960s to address the problem of storing and retrieving large amounts of data accurately and quickly. One of the earliest such systems was IBM's Information Management System (IMS), which is still widely deployed more than 40 years later. IMS stores data hierarchically, but in the 1970s Ted Codd proposed an alternative relational storage model based on set theory and predicate logic and the familiar concepts of tables, rows and columns. The first commercially available relational database management system (RDBMS) was available from Oracle in 1980. 17 | 18 | All database management systems consist of a number of components that together allow the data they store to be accessed simultaneously by many users while maintaining its integrity. A characteristic of all databases is that the structure of the data they contain is defined and stored separately from the data itself, in a database schema. 19 | 20 | The extensible markup language (XML) has become a popular format for data representation in recent years. Although XML data can be stored in normal file systems, it is commonly held in relational databases to take advantage of their "robust implementation verified by years of both theoretical and practical effort". As an evolution of the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), XML's text-based structure offers the advantage of being both machine and human-readable. 21 | 22 | The terms "data" and "information" are not synonymous. Anything stored is data, but it only becomes information when it is organised and presented meaningfully. Most of the world's digital data is unstructured, and stored in a variety of different physical formats even within a single organisation. Data warehouses began to be developed in the 1980s to integrate these disparate stores. They typically contain data extracted from various sources, including external sources such as the Internet, organised in such a way as to facilitate decision support systems (DSS). 23 | 24 | Data transmission has three aspects: transmission, propagation, and reception. 25 | 26 | XML has been increasingly employed as a means of data interchange since the early 2000s, particularly for machine-oriented interactions such as those involved in web-oriented protocols such as SOAP, describing "data-in-transit rather than ... data-at-rest". 27 | 28 | Hilbert and Lopez identify the exponential pace of technological change (a kind of Moore's law): machines' application-specific capacity to compute information per capita roughly doubled every 14 months between 1986 and 2007; the per capita capacity of the world's general-purpose computers doubled every 18 months during the same two decades; the global telecommunication capacity per capita doubled every 34 months; the world's storage capacity per capita required roughly 40 months to double (every 3 years); and per capita broadcast information has doubled every 12.3 years. 29 | 30 | Massive amounts of data are stored worldwide every day, but unless it can be analysed and presented effectively it essentially resides in what have been called data tombs: "data archives that are seldom visited". To address that issue, the field of data mining – "the process of discovering interesting patterns and knowledge from large amounts of data"  – emerged in the late 1980s. 31 | 32 | The field of information ethics was established by mathematician Norbert Wiener in the 1940s. Some of the ethical issues associated with the use of information technology include: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Reference#Almanacs.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | An almanac (also archaically spelled almanack and almanach) is an annual publication that includes information such as weather forecasts, farmers' planting dates, tide tables, and tabular information in a particular field or fields often arranged according to the calendar etc. Astronomical data and various statistics are also found in almanacs, such as the times of the rising and setting of the sun and moon, eclipses, hours of full tide, stated festivals of churches, terms of courts, lists of all types, timelines, and more. 3 | 4 | The etymology of the word is unclear, but there are several theories: 5 | 6 | The reason why the proposed Arabic word is speculatively spelled al-manākh is that the spelling occurred as "almanach" as well as almanac (and Roger Bacon used both spellings). The earliest use of the word was in the context of astronomy calendars. 7 | 8 | The prestige of the Tables of Toledo and other medieval Arabic astronomy works at the time of the word's emergence in the West, together with the absence of the word in Arabic, suggest it may have been invented in the West, and is pseudo-Arabic. At that time in the West, it would have been prestigious to attach an Arabic appellation to a set of astronomical tables. Also around that time, prompted by that motive, the Latin writer Pseudo-Geber wrote under an Arabic pseudonym. (The later alchemy word alkahest is known to be pseudo-Arabic.) 9 | 10 | The origin of the almanac can be traced back to ancient Babylonian astronomy, when tables of planetary periods were produced in order to predict lunar and planetary phenomena. 11 | 12 | The precursor to the almanac was the Greek astronomical and meteorological calendar, the parapegma, an inscribed stone on which the days of the month were indicated by movable pegs inserted into bored holes. According to Diogenes Laërtius, Parapegma was the title of a book by Democritus. Ptolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer (2nd century) wrote a treatise, Phaseis—"phases of fixed stars and collection of weather-changes" is the translation of its full title—the core of which is a parapegma, a list of dates of seasonally regular weather changes, first appearances and last appearances of stars or constellations at sunrise or sunset, and solar events such as solstices, all organized according to the solar year. With the astronomical computations were expected weather phenomena, composed as a digest of observations made by various authorities of the past. Parapegmata had been composed for centuries. Similar treatises called Zij were later composed in medieval Islamic astronomy. 13 | 14 | Ptolemy believed that astronomical phenomena caused the changes in seasonal weather; his explanation of why there was not an exact correlation of these events was that the physical influences of other heavenly bodies also came into play. Hence for him, weather prediction was a special division of astrology. 15 | 16 | The modern almanac differs from Babylonian, Ptolemaic and Zij tables in the sense that "the entries found in the almanacs give directly the positions of the celestial bodies and need no further computation", in contrast to the more common "auxiliary astronomical tables" based on Ptolemy's Almagest. The earliest known almanac in this modern sense is the Almanac of Azarqueil written in 1088 by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Latinized as Arzachel) in Toledo, al-Andalus. The work provided the true daily positions of the sun, moon and planets for four years from 1088 to 1092, as well as many other related tables. A Latin translation and adaptation of the work appeared as the Tables of Toledo in the 12th century and the Alfonsine tables in the 13th century. 17 | 18 | After almanacs were devised, people still saw little difference between predicting the movements of the stars and tides, and predicting the future in the divination sense. Early almanacs therefore contained general horoscopes, as well as the more concrete information. In 1150 Solomon Jarchus created such an almanac considered to be among the first modern almanacs. Copies of 12th century almanacs are found in the British Museum, and in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In 1300, Petrus de Dacia created an almanac (Savilian Library, Oxford). This was the same year Roger Bacon, OFM, produced his as well. In 1327 Walter de Elvendene created an almanac and later on John Somers of Oxford, in 1380. In 1386 Nicholas de Lynne, Oxford produced an almanac. In 1457 the first printed almanac was published at Mainz, by Gutenberg (eight years before the famous Bible). Regio-Montanus produced an almanac in 1472 (Nuremberg, 1472), which was continued in print for several centuries in many editions. In 1497 the Sheapheard’s Kalendar, translated from French (Richard Pynson) became the first English printed almanac. 19 | 20 | By the second half of the 16th century, yearly almanacs were being produced in English by men such as Anthony Askham, Thomas Buckminster, John Dade and Gabriel Frende. In the 17th century, English almanacs were bestsellers, second only to the Bible; by the middle of the century, 400,000 almanacs were being produced annually (a complete listing can be found in the English Short Title Catalogue). Richard Allestree (who is not the same as Richard Allestree) wrote one of the more popular English almanacs, producing yearly volumes from 1617 to 1643, but his is by no means the earliest or the longest-running almanac. In British America, William Pierce of Harvard College published the first American almanac entitled, An Almanac for New England for the year 1639 Cambridge, Massachusetts. Harvard became the first center for the annual publication of almanacs with various editors including Samuel Danforth, Oakes, Cheever, Chauncey, Dudley, Foster, et alia. An almanac maker going under the pseudonym of Poor Richard, Knight of the Burnt Island began to publish Poor Robin's Almanack one of the first comic almanacs that parodied these horoscopes in its 1664 issue, saying "This month we may expect to hear of the Death of some Man, Woman, or Child, either in Kent or Christendom." Other noteworthy comic almanacs include those published from 1687-1702 by John Tully of Saybrook, Connecticut. 21 | 22 | The most important early American almanacs were made from 1726-1775 by Nathaniel Ames of Dedham, Massachusetts. A few years later James Franklin began publishing the Rhode-Island Almanack beginning in 1728. Five years later his brother Benjamin Franklin began publishing Poor Richard's Almanack from 1733-1758. Benjamin Banneker improved on the Almanac from 1792-1797. 23 | 24 | Currently published almanacs such as Whitaker's Almanack have expanded their scope and contents beyond that of their historical counterparts. Modern almanacs include a comprehensive presentation of statistical and descriptive data covering the entire world. Contents also include discussions of topical developments and a summary of recent historical events. Other currently published almanacs (ca. 2006) include TIME Almanac with Information Please, World Almanac and Book of Facts, The Farmer's Almanac and The Old Farmer's Almanac. In 2007, Harrowsmith Country Life Magazine launched the first Canadian Almanac, written in Canada, with all-Canadian content. 25 | 26 | Major topics covered by almanacs (reflected by their tables of contents) include: geography, government, demographics, agriculture, economics and business, health and medicine, religion, mass media, transportation, science and technology, sport, and awards/prizes. 27 | 28 | Other examples include The Almanac of American Politics published by the National Journal, The Almanac of American Literature, and The Almanac of British Politics. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Regional#Oceania.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Oceania ( is a region centered on the islands of the tropical Pacific Ocean. Opinions of what constitutes Oceania range from the coral atolls and volcanic islands of the South Pacific (ethnologically divided into the subregions of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia) to the entire insular region between Asia and the Americas, including Australasia and the Malay Archipelago. The term is sometimes used more specifically to denote a continent comprising Australia and proximate islands, or biogeographically as a synonym for either the Australasian ecozone (Wallacea and Australasia) or the Pacific ecozone (Melanesia, Polynesia, and Micronesia apart either from New Zealand or from mainland New Guinea). 3 | 4 | The term was coined as Océanie ca. 1812 by geographer Conrad Malte-Brun. The word Océanie is a French language word derived from the Greek word ὠκεανός (ōkeanós), ocean. 5 | 6 | Oceania was originally conceived as the lands of the Pacific Ocean, stretching from the Straits of Malacca to the coast of the Americas. It comprised four regions: Polynesia, Micronesia, Malaysia (now called the Malay Archipelago), and Melanesia (now called Australasia). Included are parts of three geological continents, Eurasia, Australia, and Zealandia, as well the non-continental volcanic islands of the Philippines, Wallacea, and the open Pacific. It extends to Sumatra in the west, the Bonin Islands in the northwest, the Hawaiian Islands in the northeast, Rapa Nui and Sala y Gómez Island in the east, and Macquarie Island in the south, but excludes Taiwan, the Japanese Archipelago (including the Ryukyu Islands), and Aleutian Islands of the margins of Asia. 7 | 8 | The states that occupy Oceania that are not included in geopolitical Oceania are Indonesia, Malaysia (through Malaysian Borneo), Brunei, the Philippines, and East Timor. The islands of the geographic extremes are politically integral parts of Japan (Bonin), the United States (Hawaii), and Chile (Rapa Nui, formerly Easter Island). A smaller geographic definition also exists, which excludes the land on the Sunda Plate, but includes Indonesian New Guinea as part of the Australian continent. 9 | 10 | Biogeographically, Oceania is used as a synonym for either the Australasian ecozone (Wallacea and Australasia) or the Pacific ecozone (Melanesia, Polynesia, and Micronesia apart either from New Zealand or from mainland New Guinea ). 11 | 12 | Oceania is one of eight terrestrial ecozones, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. The Oceania ecozone includes all of Micronesia, Fiji, and all of Polynesia except New Zealand. New Zealand, New Guinea, Melanesia apart from Fiji, and Australia constitute the separate Australasia ecozone. The Malay Archipelago is part of the Indomalaya ecozone. Related to these concepts are Near Oceania, that part of western Island Melanesia which has been inhabited for tens of millennia, and Remote Oceania, which is more recently settled. 13 | 14 | In the geopolitical conception used by the United Nations, International Olympic Committee, and many atlases, Oceania includes Australia and the nations of the Pacific from Papua New Guinea east, but not the Malay Archipelago or Indonesian New Guinea. 15 | 16 | The demographic table below shows the subregions and countries of geopolitical Oceania. The countries and territories in this table are categorized according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations. The information shown follows sources in cross-referenced articles; where sources differ, provisos have been clearly indicated. These territories and regions are subject to various additional categorisations, of course, depending on the source and purpose of each description. 17 | 18 | The predominant religion in Oceania is Christianity. Traditional religions are often animist and prevalent among traditional tribes is the belief in spirits (masalai in Tok Pisin) representing natural forces. In recent Australian and New Zealand censuses, large proportions of the population say they belong to "No religion" (which includes atheism, agnosticism, Secular Humanism, and rationalism). In Tonga, everyday life is heavily influenced by Polynesian traditions and especially by the Christian faith. The Bahá'í House of Worship in Tiapapata, Samoa is one of seven designations administered in the Baha'i faith. 19 | 20 | The Pacific Games (formerly known as the South Pacific Games) is a multi-sport event, much like the Olympics on a much smaller scale, with participation exclusively from countries around the Pacific. It is held every four years and began in 1963. Australia and New Zealand do not compete at the Pacific Games. 21 | 22 | Rugby league is a popular sport throughout Oceania, and is the national sport of Papua New Guinea (the second most populous country in Oceania after Australia) and is very popular in Australia and attracts significant attention across New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. 23 | 24 | Australia and New Zealand are two of the most successful sides in the world. Australia has won the Rugby League World Cup a record nine times while New Zealand won their first World Cup in 2008. Australia hosted the second tournament in 1957. Australia and New Zealand jointly hosted it in 1968 and 1977. New Zealand hosted the final for the first time in 1985 – 1988 tournament and Australia hosted the last tournament in 2008. 25 | 26 | Rugby union is one of the region's most prominent sports, and is the national sport of New Zealand, Samoa, Fiji and Tonga. Fiji's sevens team is one of the most successful in the world, as is New Zealand's. 27 | 28 | New Zealand and Australia have won the Rugby World Cup a record two times (tied with South Africa who have also won it two times). New Zealand won the inaugural World Cup in 1987. Australia and New Zealand jointly hosted the World Cup in 1987. Australia hosted it in 2003 and New Zealand hosted it in 2011, which they then went on to win. 29 | 30 | Cricket is a popular summer sport in Australia and New Zealand. Australia had ruled International cricket as the number one team for more than a decade, and have won four Cricket World Cups and have been runner-up for two times, making them the most successful cricket team. New Zealand is also considered a strong competitor in the sport, with the New Zealand Cricket Team, also called the Black Caps, enjoying success in many competitions. Both Australia and New Zealand are Full members of the ICC. Fiji, Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea are some of the Associate/Affiliate members of the ICC from Oceania that are governed by ICC East Asia-Pacific. Beach Cricket, a greatly simplified variant of cricket played on a sand beach, is also a popular recreational sport in Australia. 31 | 32 | Cricket is culturally a significant sport for summer in Oceania. The Boxing Day Test is very popular in Australia, conducted every year on 26 December at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne. 33 | 34 | Australian rules football is the national sport in Nauru and is the most popular football code in Australia. It is also popular in Papua New Guinea. 35 | 36 | The Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) is one of six association football confederations under the auspices of FIFA, the international governing body of the sport. The OFC is the only confederation without an automatic qualification to the World Cup Finals. Currently the winner of the OFC qualification tournament must play off against an Asian confederation side to qualify for the World Cup. 37 | 38 | Currently, Vanuatu is the only country in Oceania to call football (soccer) its national sport. 39 | 40 | Oceania has been represented at four World Cup finals tournaments — Australia in 1974, 2006 and 2010, and New Zealand in 1982 and 2010. In 2006, Australia joined the Asian Football Confederation and qualified for the 2010 World cup as an Asian entrant. New Zealand qualified through the Oceania Confederation, winning its playoff against Bahrain. 2010 was the first time two countries from Oceania had qualified at the same time, albeit through different confederations. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Games#Online.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | The terms "online" and "offline" (also stylized as "on-line" and "off-line") have specific meanings in regard to computer technology and telecommunications. In general, "online" indicates a state of connectivity, while "offline" indicates a disconnected state. 3 | 4 | The concepts have however been extended from their computing and telecommunication meanings into the area of human interaction and conversation, such that even offline can be used in contrast to the common usage of online. For example, discussions taking place during a business meeting are "online", while issues that do not concern all participants of the meeting should be "taken offline" — continued outside of the meeting. 5 | 6 | In computer technology and telecommunication, online and offline are defined by Federal Standard 1037C. They are states or conditions of a "device or equipment" or of a "functional unit". To be considered online, one of the following must apply to a device: 7 | 8 | In contrast, a device that is offline meets none of these criteria (e.g., its main power source is disconnected or turned off, or it is off-power). 9 | 10 | One example of a common use of these concepts is a mail user agent that can be instructed to be in either online or offline states. One such MUA is Microsoft Outlook. When online it will attempt to connect to mail servers (to check for new mail at regular intervals, for example), and when offline it will not attempt to make any such connection. The online or offline state of the MUA does not necessarily reflect the connection status between the computer on which it is running and the Internet. That is, the computer itself may be online—connected to Internet via a cable modem or other means—while Outlook is kept offline by the user, so that it makes no attempt to send or to receive messages. Similarly, a computer may be configured to employ a dial-up connection on demand (as when an application such as Outlook attempts to make connection to a server), but the user may not wish for Outlook to trigger that call whenever it is configured to check for mail. 11 | 12 | Another example of the use of these concepts is digital audio technology. A tape recorder, digital audio editor, or other device that is online is one whose clock is under the control of the clock of a synchronization master device. When the sync master commences playback, the online device automatically synchronizes itself to the master and commences playing from the same point in the recording. A device that is offline uses no external clock reference and relies upon its own internal clock. When a large number of devices are connected to a sync master it is often convenient, if one wants to hear just the output of one single device, to take it offline because, if the device is played back online, all synchronized devices have to locate the playback point and wait for each other device to be in synchronization. (For related discussion, see MIDI timecode, word sync, and recording system synchronization.) 13 | 14 | A third example of a common use of these concepts is a web browser that can be instructed to be in either online or offline states. The browser attempts to fetch pages from servers while only in the online state. In the offline state, users can perform offline browsing, where pages can be browsed using local copies of those pages that have previously been downloaded while in the on-line state. This can be useful when the computer is offline and connection to the Internet is impossible or undesirable. The pages are downloaded either implicitly into the web browser's own cache as a result of prior online browsing by the user or explicitly by a browser configured to keep local copies of certain web pages, which are updated when the browser is in the online state, either by checking that the local copies are up-to-date at regular intervals or by checking that the local copies are up-to-date whenever the browser is switched to the on-line state. One such web browser capable of being explicitly configured to download pages for offline browsing is Internet Explorer. When pages are added to the Favourites list, they can be marked to be "available for offline browsing". Internet Explorer will download to local copies both the marked page and, optionally, all of the pages that it links to. In Internet Explorer version 6, the level of direct and indirect links, the maximum amount of local disc space allowed to be consumed, and the schedule on which local copies are checked to see whether they are up-to-date, are configurable for each individual Favourites entry. 15 | 16 | For communities that lack adequate Internet connectivity—like developing countries, rural areas, and prisons—off-line information stores like the eGranary Digital Library (a collection of approximately 30 million educational resources from more than 2,000 Web sites and hundreds of CD-ROMs) provide off-line access to information. Numerous organizations have developed, or are developing, flash memory chips with collections of educational materials for off-line use in smartphones, tablets, and laptops. 17 | 18 | Likewise, offline storage is computer data storage that is not "available for immediate use on demand by the system without human intervention." Additionally, an otherwise online system that is powered down is considered offline. 19 | 20 | Online and offline distinctions have been generalized from computing and telecommunication into the field of human interpersonal relationships. The distinction between what is considered online and what is considered offline has become a subject of study in the field of sociology. 21 | 22 | The distinction between online and offline is conventionally seen as the distinction between computer-mediated communication and face-to-face communication (e.g., face time), respectively. Online is virtuality or cyberspace, and offline is reality (i.e., Real life or meatspace). Slater states that this distinction is "obviously far too simple". To support his argument that the distinctions in relationships are more complex than a simple online/offline dichotomy, he observes that some people draw no distinction between an on-line relationship, such as indulging in cybersex, and an offline relationship, such as being pen pals. He also argues that even the telephone can be regarded as an online experience in some circumstances, and that the blurring of the distinctions between the uses of various technologies (such as PDA and mobile phone, internet television and Internet, and telephone and Voice over Internet Protocol) has made it "impossible to use the term on-line meaningfully in the sense that was employed by the first generation of Internet research". 23 | 24 | Slater asserts that there are legal and regulatory pressures to reduce the distinction between online and offline, with a "general tendency to assimilate online to offline and erase the distinction," stressing, however, that this does not mean that online relationships are being reduced to pre-existing offline relationships. He conjectures that greater legal status may be assigned to online relationships (pointing out that contractual relationships, such as business transactions, online are already seen as just as "real" as their offline counterparts), although he states it to be hard to imagine courts awarding palimony to people who have had a purely online sexual relationship. He also conjectures that an online/offline distinction may be seen by people as "rather quaint and not quite comprehensible" within 10 years. 25 | 26 | This distinction between online and offline is sometimes inverted, with online concepts being used to define and to explain offline activities, rather than (as per the conventions of the desktop metaphor with its desktops, trash cans, folders, and so forth) the other way around. Several cartoons appearing in The New Yorker have satirized this. One includes Saint Peter asking for a username and a password before admitting a man into Heaven. Another illustrates "the off-line store" where "All items are actual size!" shoppers may "Take it home as soon as you pay for it!" and "Merchandise may be handled prior to purchase!" -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Sports#Hockey.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | Hockey is a family of sports in which two teams play against each other by trying to maneuver a ball or a puck into the opponent's goal using a hockey stick. In many areas, one sport (typically field hockey or ice hockey ) is generally referred to simply as hockey. 3 | 4 | The first recorded use of the word "hockey" is found in the text of a royal proclamation issued by Edward III of England in 1363 banning certain types of sports and games. 5 | 6 | The word hockey itself is of unknown origin, although it is likely a derivative of hoquet, a Middle French word for a shepherd's stave. The curved, or "hooked" ends of the sticks used for hockey would indeed have resembled these staves. 7 | 8 | Games played with curved sticks and a ball can be found in the histories of many cultures. In Egypt, 4000-year-old carvings feature teams with sticks and a projectile, hurling dates to before 1272 BC in Ireland, and there is a depiction from c.600 BC in Ancient Greece where the game may have been called kerētízein or kerhtízein (κερητίζειν) because it was played with a horn or horn-like stick(kéras, κέρας) In Inner Mongolia, China, the Daur people have been playing beikou, a game similar to modern field hockey, for about 1,000 years. 9 | 10 | Most evidence of hockey-like games during the Middle Ages is found in legislation concerning sports and games. Similar to Edward's proclamation was the Galway Statute enacted in Ireland in 1527, which banned certain types of ball games, including hockey. 11 | 12 | By the 19th century, the various forms and divisions of historic games began to differentiate and coalesce into the individual sports defined today. Organizations dedicated to the codification of rules and regulations began to form, and national and international bodies sprung up to manage domestic and international competition. Ice hockey also evolved during this period as a derivative of field hockey adapted to the icy conditions of Canada and the northern United States. 13 | 14 | Field hockey is played on gravel, natural grass, sand-based or water-based artificial turf, with a small, hard ball. The game is popular among both males and females in many parts of the world, particularly in Europe, Asia, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. In most countries, the game is played between single-sex sides, although they can be mixed-sex. 15 | 16 | The governing body is the 116-member International Hockey Federation (FIH). Men's field hockey has been played at each summer Olympic Games since 1908 (except 1912 and 1924), while women's field hockey has been played at the Summer Olympic Games since 1980. 17 | 18 | Modern field hockey sticks are J-shaped and constructed of a composite of wood, glass fibre or carbon fibre (sometimes both) and have a curved hook at the playing end, a flat surface on the playing side and curved surface on the rear side. While current field hockey appeared in the mid-18th century in England, primarily in schools, it was not until the first half of the 19th century that it became firmly established. The first club was created in 1849 at Blackheath in south-east London. Field hockey is the national sport of India and Pakistan. 19 | 20 | Ice hockey is played on a large flat area of ice, using a three-inch-diameter (76.2 mm) vulcanized rubber disc called a puck. This puck is often frozen before high-level games to decrease the amount of bouncing and friction on the ice. The game is contested between two teams of skaters. The game is played all over North America, Europe and in many other countries around the world to varying extent. It is the most popular sport in Canada, Finland, Latvia, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia. 21 | 22 | The governing body of international play is the 66-member International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). Men's ice hockey has been played at the Winter Olympics since 1924, and was in the 1920 Summer Olympics. Women's ice hockey was added to the Winter Olympics in 1998. North America's National Hockey League (NHL) is the strongest professional ice hockey league, drawing top ice hockey players from around the globe. The NHL rules are slightly different from those used in Olympic ice hockey over many categories. 23 | 24 | Ice hockey sticks are long L-shaped sticks made of wood, graphite, or composites with a blade at the bottom that can lie flat on the playing surface when the stick is held upright and can curve either way, legally, as to help a left- or right-handed player gain an advantage. 25 | 26 | There are early representations and reports of ice hockey-type games being played on ice in the Netherlands, and reports from Canada from the beginning of the nineteenth century, but the modern game was initially organized by students at McGill University, Montreal in 1875 who, by two years later, codified the first set of ice hockey rules and organized the first teams. 27 | 28 | Ice hockey is the national sport of Latvia and the national winter sport of Canada. 29 | 30 | Ice hockey is played at a number of levels, by all ages. 31 | 32 | Inline hockey is a variation of roller hockey very similar to ice hockey, from which it is derived. Inline hockey is played by two teams, consisting of four skaters and one goalie, on a dry rink divided into two halves by a center line, with one net at each end of the rink. The game is played in three 15-minute periods with a variation of the ice hockey off-side rule. Icings are also called, but are usually referred to as illegal clearing. For rink dimensions and an overview of the rules of the game, see IIHF Inline Rules (official rules). Some leagues and competitions do not follow the IIHF regulations, in particular USA Inline and Canada Inline. 33 | 34 | Roller hockey, also known as quad hockey, international-style ball hockey, and Hoquei em Patins is an overarching name for a roller sport that has existed since long before inline skates were invented. This sport is played in over sixty countries and has a worldwide following. Roller hockey was a demonstration sport at the 1992 Barcelona Summer Olympics. 35 | 36 | Sledge hockey is a form of ice hockey designed for players with physical disabilities affecting their lower bodies. Players sit on double-bladed sledges and use two sticks; each stick has a blade at one end and small picks at the other. Players use the sticks to pass, stickhandle and shoot the puck, and to propel their sledges. The rules are very similar to IIHF ice hockey rules. 37 | 38 | Canada is a recognized international leader in the development of the sport, and of equipment for players. Much of the equipment for the sport was first developed in Canada, such as sledge hockey sticks laminated with fiberglass, as well as aluminum shafts with hand carved insert blades and special aluminum sledges with regulation skate blades. 39 | 40 | Based on ice sledge hockey, inline sledge hockey is played to the same rules as inline puck hockey (essentially ice hockey played off ice using inline skates) and has been made possible by the design and manufacture of inline sledges by RGK, Europe’s premier sports wheelchair maker. 41 | 42 | There is no classification point system dictating who can play inline sledge hockey, unlike the situation with other team sports such as wheelchair basketball and wheelchair rugby. Inline sledge hockey is being developed to allow everyone, regardless of whether they have a disability or not, to complete up to world championship level based solely on talent and ability. This makes inline sledge hockey truly inclusive. 43 | 44 | The first game of inline sledge hockey was played at Bisley, England, on the 19th of December 2009 between the Hull Stingrays and the Grimsby Redwings. Matt Lloyd is credited with inventing inline sledge hockey, and Great Britain is seen as the international leader in the game's development. 45 | 46 | Also known as road hockey, this is a dry-land variant of ice and roller hockey played on a hard surface (usually asphalt). Most of the time, a ball is used instead of a puck, and generally no protective equipment is worn. Street hockey is played year round. 47 | 48 | Other games derived from hockey or its predecessors include the following: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- /crawled/Recreation#Guns.txt: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 | Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2 | A gun is a device designed to discharge a projectile. The projectile may be solid, liquid, gas or energy and may be free, as with bullets and artillery shells, or captive as with Taser probes and whaling harpoons. The means of projection varies according to design but is usually effected by the action of gas pressure, either produced through the rapid combustion of a propellant or compressed and stored by mechanical means, operating on the projectile inside an open-ended tube in the fashion of a piston. The confined gas accelerates the movable projectile down the length of the tube imparting sufficient velocity to sustain the projectile's travel once the action of the gas ceases at the end of the tube or muzzle. Alternatively, acceleration via electromagnetic field generation may be employed in which case the tube may be dispensed with and a guide rail substituted. 3 | 4 | In ordinary speech the term gun may refer to any sort of firearm including those that are usually hand-held (handgun). The word gun is also commonly used to describe objects which, while they are not themselves weapons, produce an effect or possess a form which is in some way evocative of a handgun or longarm. However, in contemporary military and naval parlance the term gun has a very specific meaning and refers solely to any large-calibre, direct-fire, high-velocity, flat-trajectory artillery piece employing an explosive-filled hollowed metal shell or solid bolt as its primary projectile. This later usage contrasts with large-calibre, high-angle, low-velocity, indirect-fire weapons such as howitzers, mortars, and grenade launchers which invariantly employ explosive-filled shells. 5 | 6 | The origin of the English word gun is presently considered to derive from the name given to a particular historical weapon. Domina Gunilda was the name given to a remarkably large ballista, a mechanical bolt throwing weapon of enormous size, mounted at Windsor Castle during the 14C. This name in turn may have derived from the Old Norse woman's proper name Gunnhildr which combines two Norse words referring to battle. In any case the term gonne or gunne was applied to early hand-held firearms by the late 14C. or early 15C. 7 | 8 | Modern guns are typically described by their bore diameter (75mm) or calibre (7.62mm), the type of action employed (muzzle, breech, lever, bolt, revolver, semi-automatic, or automatic) together with the usual means of deportment (hand-held or mechanical mounting). They may be further distinguished by reference to the type of barrel used (rifled), the barrel length (19 inch) or calibre (L55), the design's primary intended target (anti-aircraft), or the commonly accepted name for a particular variation (Gatling gun). 9 | 10 | Barrel types include rifled—a series of spiralled grooves or angles within the barrel—when the projectile requires an induced spin to stabilize it, and smoothbore when the projectile is stabilized by other means or rifling is undesired or unnecessary. Typically, interior barrel diameter and the associated projectile size is a means to identify gun variations. Bore diameter is reported in several ways. The more conventional measure is reporting the interior diameter (bore) of the barrel in decimal fractions of the inch or in millimetres. Some guns—such as shotguns—report the weapon's gauge (which is the number of shot pellets having the same diameter as the bore produced from one English pound (454g) of lead) or—as in some British ordnance—the weight of the weapon's usual projectile. 11 | 12 | A gun projectile may be a simple, single-piece item like a bullet, a casing containing a payload like a shotshell or explosive shell, or complex projectile like a sub-caliber projectile and sabot. The propellant may be air, an explosive solid, or an explosive liquid. Some variations like the Gyrojet and certain other types combine the projectile and propellant into a single item. 13 | 14 | The use of the term "cannon" is interchangeable with "gun" as words borrowed from the French language during the early 15th century, from Old French canon, itself a borrowing from the Italian cannone, a "large tube" augmentative of Latin canna "reed or cane". Recent scholarship indicates that the term "gun" may have its origins in the Norse woman's name "Gunnildr" (or "Gunnild", possibly Queen Gunhild of Wenden, wife of King Sweyn Forkbeard ), which was often shortened to "Gunna". The earliest recorded use of the term "gonne" was in a Latin document circa 1339. Other names for guns during this era were "schioppi" (Italian translation-"thunderers"), and "donrebusse" (Dutch translation-"thunder gun") which was incorporated into the English language as "blunderbuss". Artillerymen were often referred to as "gonners" and "artillers". Early guns and the men who used them were often associated with the devil and the gunner's craft was considered a black art, a point reinforced by the smell of sulfur on battlefields created from the firing of guns along with the muzzle blast and accompanying flash. 15 | 16 | In military use, the term "gun" refers primarily to direct fire weapons that capitalize on their muzzle velocity for penetration or range. In modern parlance, these weapons are breech-loaded and built primarily for long range fire with a low or almost flat ballistic arc. A variation is the howitzer or gun-howitzer designed to offer the ability to fire both low or high-angle ballistic arcs. In this use, example guns include naval guns. A less strict application of the word is to identify one artillery weapon system or non-machine gun projectile armament on aircraft. 17 | 18 | The word cannon is retained in some cases for the actual gun tube but not the weapon system. The title gunner is applied to the member of the team charged with operating, aiming, and firing a gun. 19 | 20 | Autocannon are automatic guns designed primarily to fire shells and are mounted on a vehicle or other mount. Machine guns are similar, but usually designed to fire simple projectiles. In some calibers and some usages, these two definitions overlap. 21 | 22 | A related military use of the word is in describing gun-type fission weapon. In this instance, the "gun" is part of a nuclear weapon and contains an explosively propelled sub-critical slug of fissile material within a barrel to be fired into a second sub-critical mass in order to initiate the fission reaction. Potentially confused with this usage are small nuclear devices capable of being fired by artillery or recoilless rifle. 23 | 24 | In civilian use, a related item used in agriculture is a captive bolt gun. Such captive piston guns are often used to humanely stun farm animals for slaughter. 25 | 26 | Shotguns are normally civilian weapons used primarily for hunting. These weapons are typically smooth bored and fire a shell containing small lead or steel balls. Variations use rifled barrels or fire other projectiles including solid lead slugs, a Taser XREP projectile capable of stunning a target, or other payloads. In military versions, these weapons are often used to burst door hinges or locks in addition to antipersonnel uses. 27 | 28 | Most guns use compressed gas confined by the barrel to propel the bullet up to high speed, though devices operating in other ways are sometimes called guns. In guns that are firearms the high pressure gas is generated by combustion, usually of gun powder. This principle is similar to that of internal combustion engines, except that the bullet leaves the barrel while the piston transfers its motion to other parts and returns down the cylinder. As in an internal combustion engine, the combustion propagates by deflagration rather than by detonation, and the optimal gunpowder, like the optimal motor fuel, is resistant to detonation. This is because much of the energy generated in detonation is in the form of a shock wave, which can propagate from the gas to the solid structure and heat or damage the structure, rather than staying as heat to propel the piston or bullet. The shock wave at such high temperature and pressure is much faster than that of any bullet, and would leave the gun as sound either through the barrel or the bullet itself rather than contributing to the bullet's velocity. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------